时间：2023-03-01 16:23:41
导语：在美食文化论文的撰写旅程中，学习并吸收他人佳作的精髓是一条宝贵的路径，好期刊汇集了九篇优秀范文，愿这些内容能够启发您的创作灵感，引领您探索更多的创作可能。
一些化学实验需要较长的时间才能完成，而由于受到课时的限制，教师难以将化学实验搬进课堂，为学生演练整个实验过程。然而，如果使用多媒体手段，这个难题就迎刃而解。比如针对“铁生锈”这个实验，做完整个实验流程一般需要10天左右的时间，教师可以利用电视录像记录整个实验过程，然后再加以一定的技术处理，将整个实验过程中有明显现象变化的部分剪辑出来，再在课堂上播放给学生看，就可以让学生在短时间内知晓铁生锈的过程，不仅节约了课堂时间，还可以让学生观察到明显的实验现象，增强认知感。另外，还有一部分化学实验是在瞬间完成的，整个过程很难分步观察，教师可以利用多媒体虚拟实验，采用“重放”“定格”和“慢放”的技术功能帮助学生观察。比如可以设计Flas模拟实验室制取二氧化碳气体的过程，帮助学生清晰观察整个实验反应过程。
二、扼杀危险因子
在化学实验教学中，有许多实验现象是无法直接感知的，而且不乏一些危险系数较大的实验，教师不能为了加深学生对实验的印象，而冒险用危险实验去直接验证结论。但是使用多媒体技术模拟这些实验，可以将危险因子扼杀在摇篮之内，让学生留下终身难忘的记忆。比如演练“加热高锰酸钾制氧气”这个实验，实验结束前的最后一个步骤是熄灭酒精灯并撤走水槽。在实际教学中，对于这个过程的留心之处在于先撤走水槽，然后再熄灭酒精灯。如果顺序颠倒，有可能导致水倒流，进而导致试管炸裂，伤害人体。对于这样一个错误的操作过程，教师不能用实验直接演示给学生看，而是可以通过Flas来模拟水的倒流与试管炸裂的过程，加强学生的印象，促使他们养成严谨的科学精神。诸如此类的实验还有很多，比如将水倒入浓硫酸中，稀释浓硫酸；一氧化碳还原氧化铁时，先加热后通一氧化碳。这类危险性实验都可借助多媒体演练。
三、化抽象为具体
化学概念基本都是繁杂、抽象的，诸多概念难以让学生在短时间内接受和理解。比如对于物质的微观结构内容，既看不到，又摸不着，很难让学生充分把握这些化学内容。在传统教学模式下，教师基本借助挂图和模型，再加以一定的语言讲解让学生理解这部分知识。虽然这样的教学方式有些许成效，但是对于微粒运动变化的过程却无法利用挂图与模型充分展示，这样的教学方式固定、僵化，因而难以收到应有的教学效果。借助多媒体计算机技术可以将微观抽象的化学内容进行二维或三维模拟，利用图形、图像、文字、动画或视频等方式为学生提供丰富的感性材料，将难以演练的实验具体化，将难以想象的微观世界宏观化，使学生透过现象看本质，突破化学教学的难点与重点。比如教师可以利用多媒体动画方式将“原子”的内容宏观化，让学生通过氧化汞分子的分解实验理解原子改变，这种变小为大的演练流程可以帮助学生更好地理解化学知识。
【论文关键词】时代性;文化的主导权;平民化;生活化
有人说.，影视作品“平实化意识的自觉是对中国传统美学的承继，有利于打造电视剧的民族文化品牌”，作为一个影视艺术爱好者和华夏五千年悠久文化的追随者，笔者认为很有必要对当代影视文化与中国传统美学的关系给予足够的重视。
诚然，影视艺术是诸多艺术类型中最具时代特性的一种艺术样式。影视艺术的时代特性一方面是由其赖以生成和发展的基本条件决定的，另一方面也取决于其内在的美学品格。影视作为一种文化既具有其他艺术样式难以比拟的发展前景和潜力，也是接受范围最广的艺术形式，同时由于其市场化、商业化的特点，影视作品也成为最受大众影响的一种艺术形式。影视文化作为一种具有突出的审美意识形态特性的社会现象，其市场形态表征着社会发展的基本状况与内涵，同时，影视艺术的发展与衍变又势必受到民族审美心理、伦理道德水准等诸多方面的制约和影响，因此，某一国或者某一民族的影视艺术要健康、继续的发展就必须同时兼顾到以上诸多因素的影响。
一、电视文化的时代性
一在现有的诸多艺术种类中，电影和电视无疑最具有时代性的。电影和电视在当代艺术文化的发展中，无论其表现形式、艺术语言，还是其文化意蕴，都体现出浓郁的创新意识和时代特征。笔者认为，影视文化的时代性特点，突出地表现在以下几个方面:第一，艺术与商业并重。1895年，卢米埃尔兄弟第一次向社会售票在巴黎卡普辛路14号大咖啡馆的地下室里公映电影《工厂的大门》标志着电影的诞生。影视艺术自诞生之日起便和市场有了割不断的联系，经由百余年的运作，已成为一门具有鲜明市场特性的艺术。同时，由于影视作品通俗性、大众性特点，以及其艺术表现形式与内涵的丰富性，使得影视作品同时具有了娱乐与审美的双重功能。综观当代的影视作品，不难发现，娱乐的未必是优秀的、美的，但优秀的作品之中必定有娱乐的成分，只有关注艺术接受者，让广大观众得到愉悦感和满足感一，与其审美经验和审美期待产生共鸣，影视作品才有市场，也才有能力继续运作。因此，影视文化的娱乐功能显然大于文学等艺术种类，只有在将市场牢牢把握的同时关注文化内涵，才能算是优秀的作品。第二，传播的迅速和受众的广泛。影视文化，特别是电视，其传播区域的广泛和速度的迅捷显然是无以伦比的，由此也带来了艺术信息的极大增殖，以及人们对现代传播媒体的高度重视;.同时由于影视文化艺术作品传播的迅捷和覆盖区域的广泛，影视作品，特别是电视作品，几乎在面世后的第一时间就会受到社会的关注，观众的审美情趣与接受心理以及意识形态与价值观念等方面的评判，这些因素也对影视文化极大的压力和挑战;第三，对现代科技的倚重。作为现代科技发展的附属产物的电影与电视艺术，愈来愈离不开最新科技成就的促动;每一项对艺术可能产生影响的科技成果，几乎都会同步地运用于电影电视的制作与传播之中。因此，可以说影视艺术作品体现着时展的脉搏和大众审美理想和接受心理变化的曲线，影视文化的健康发展首先必须在二者之间找到一个平衡点。
二、冲击·反思·回归
回顾电影诞生后的这一个多世纪，我国在文化艺术方面的对外交流一直是输入大于输出，这与我们的综合国力以及在世界上的地位直接相关。实行改革开放以来，我国的综合国力大大增强，但在汉寸外文化艺术交流方面的不对等现象并未得到根本改变，我国的影视文化在艰难成长的同时不断受到外来文化的冲击和误导。在这个科技高速发展，高度信息化的时代，人们采用高科技手段，大大增进了信息流通和传播的效能，对于文化艺术活动产生了积极的作用，驱动着文化艺术事业的整体性发展。但同时也应看到，伴随信息化而来的西方特别是美国的文化模式对我国的文化安全与文化有着负面的影响。
长期以来，由于西方一些人坚持所谓“西方文化中心”论，更有少数别有用心的人鼓吹所谓“文化一体化”，将西方文化和价值观强加于其他国家的文化基土之上;在国内，也有一些人持类同的观点，似乎一提及国际间文化交流，就应该是对于西方特别是美国文化的盲目引进。然而，和影视技术与制作、艺术市场管理科学等具象的科学技术不同，影视文化具有很强的意识形态性和民族性，不能以某一种文化模式来规范和代替其他国家或者民族影视艺术的发展。有感于此，很多有识之士提出了维护中国影视文化发展的主导权的倡议，“中国电视剧要坚持‘民族性’和开放的姿态，并且坚决反对西方文化霸权的渗透，保护自己的“文化”。
丹纳曾经说:“不管在复杂的还是简单的情形之下，总是环境，就是风俗习惯与时代精神，决定艺术的种类。”如果一味追随西方文化的审美情趣，一味追求高科技手段带来的视觉效果，一味依赖市场条件下的商业运作，而背离我国影视文化生长的土壤，只会逐渐扼杀其生存的空间。曾经指导过《推手》《喜宴》等深刻挖掘新时期下民族心理擅变的优秀作品的华裔导演李安指导的电影《卧虎藏龙》就是值得反思的。影片虽然讲述的是一个传统的中国式的含蓄的爱情故事，也夺得了2001年奥斯卡最佳外语片提名，却没有在国内取得预想的收效。究其原因，蜻蜓点水、燕过无痕式的武术动作吸引了西方人好奇的目光，却忽视中国观众原有的审美情趣和接受心理，这样的处理自然不为中国观众接受。当地中国并不乏优秀的影视制作公司和艺术家，关键在于如何有效地利用和开掘广博的中华传统文化艺术的宝库，使之生成更强大的艺术影响力。从本质上讲，提高当代影视文化水准最根本的在于植根于本国和本民族深厚的传统文化基础，同时学习和借鉴其他国家和民族先进的科技手段，不断提高我国影视作品的数量和质量，才能够使其为广大国内观众喜闻乐道，并且逐步在对外文化艺术市场上站稳脚根，产生更大效应。
三、影视文化的生活化和平民化
改革开放之初的十几年间，我们的影视工作者曾经走过很多弯路，有一批盲从于西方审美情趣和接受心理的作品问世，经过一段时间的仿徨、挣扎和沉寂之后，中国的影视文艺工作者逐渐摸索出一条有中国特色的道路。近几年一，以平民和家庭伦理为题材的国产影视剧的实践，在中国影视文化的发展过程中取得了值得肯定成绩。观众对那些反映平实生活的电视作品反映的热烈程度远盛于其他风格的影视作品(其中反映当代人婚恋困扰的有王海翎《牵手》，万芳的《空镜子》、《空房子》系列，还有关注挣扎在城市生活底层的农民工生活状态的《生存之民工》等)。平实化是传统美学的重要法则，影视文化艺术平民化和生活化意识的自觉回归就是对传统美学平实化法则的继承。这种有意识的反思和回归有利于打造影视艺术文化的民族文化品牌。而在去年沸沸扬扬的批评声中落下帷幕的“超级女生”选拔活动，不论其文化价值含量究竟有多少，但是正因为功利的存在，在“超女”评选进行过程中出现的凌乱感和在年轻的“超女”之间发生着的吵闹，让平民受众感觉到市井生活的亲切感，让他们找到了最需要的，也是最真实的感觉，也因此让湖南电视台声名鹊起，树立了自己的文化品牌。
马克思指出，不是意识决定生活，而是生活决定意识。虽然影视文化艺术是最昂贵的、受市场制约最强的艺术，受到成本大、版权引进以及传播方式等方面的局限性，却是当代中国传播范围最广、最迅捷的一种艺术形式，因此，广大的影视艺术工作者不能不关注中国的社会现状。目前我国东部和西部，沿海和内陆，城市和农村贫富差距比较大，而这个拥有九亿农村人口的涣涣大国，不可能忽视占全部人口四分之三的农村受众和城市普通百姓的经济接受能力和审美价值取向，不能不把更多精力放在对传达他们审美理想上。目前，大众审美文化的崛起和兴盛是影视文化艺术市场的突出表征，这是中国处于社会转型期出现的必然现象，符合马克思对于第一性和第二性的论断，同时也是对传统美学思想平实化的回归。
新时期煤炭企业安全文化构建必须在思路上明确、清晰，这样才能有效地构建企业安全文化，并以安全文化促进企业的持续发展。新时期煤炭企业安全文化构建应在思路上确立如下两个要点：一是安全文化构建和企业思想政治教育相结合。企业文化建设和思想政治教育之间存在密切的关联性，因此安全文化构建必须和企业思想政治教育相结合。这种结合不仅仅是在观念上的结合，更要实现目标、方针、措施等多方面的共同结合。具体来说，新时期煤炭企业应将安全文化构建融入到思想政治教育中去，以思想政治教育的开展促进安全文化建设，以安全文化建设丰富思想政治教育的内涵，从而实现安全文化构建和思想政治教育之间的联动。二是安全文化构建和企业规章制度建设相结合。
煤炭企业安全文化构建还应和企业规章制度建设相结合。从媒体公开的企业安全生产事故来看，出了安全生产事故的企业往往在企业安全生产规章制度上存在很多漏洞和隐患，并在适当的时机爆发出来。血的教训要求我们，为了实现企业安全生产，必须完全企业的安全生产规章制度。如果说良好的企业安全生产文化属于“软实力”，那么完善的企业安全生产规章制度就属于“硬实力”，煤炭企业安全生产的实现必须同时注重“软实力”和“硬实力”的培养，并使两者相互促进、相互提升，共同促进企业安全生产的实现。
二、新时期煤炭企业安全文化构建的具体对策
那么，新时期煤炭企业究竟应如何构建企业安全文化呢？结合笔者对煤炭企业生产特点的把握和对企业思想政治工作、企业文化建设工作的认识，提出如下三点建议，并将其归纳为“三个注重”：
一是注重职工思想上安全观念的提升。煤炭企业为了构建良性的安全文化，应首先注重职工在思想上安全观念的提升，应使职工认识到，安全生产乃头等大事，必须狠抓不放。为了有效地实现职工思想上安全观念的提升，企业应在安全文化构建中以多元化、全方位的理念，激励和惩戒并重，使职工能够在观念上树立安全生产意识。
二是注重企业制度上安全隐患的排除。安全事故往往是由于安全生产制度上的隐患所导致的，因此煤炭企业为了实现安全生产，必须注重安全隐患的排除。在安全文化构建中，煤炭企业可以践行群众路线，发动广大职工干部，要求他们将各自岗位上的安全隐患积极排查和上报，并由企业制定统一的整改方案，确保安全隐患能够得到有效消除，以实现企业在安全生产过程中做到万无一失。
论文摘要：从孔子为代表的儒家美学思想的伦理性特点、“比德”理论、伦理判断影响审美判断三方面入手简析了中国传统审美文化的伦理性特点，并指出中国社会长期处于宗法社会以及儒家思想的促进作用是形成中国传统审美文化伦理性特点的原因。
一、中国传统审美文化的伦理性特点
中国的传统文化发展到今天已经有了几千年的历史，悠久博大的文化传承至今没有出现中断，这在世界几大文明古国中是唯一的奇迹。在这深厚的历史积淀中，中国传统文化的伦理学特点是非常值得注意的一点，而审美文化也就不可避免地表现出这一特征。
(一)以孔予为代表的儒家美学思想的伦理性
这一点在艺术还没有完全自觉的时代表现得很突出，尤其是强调伦理纲常的儒家学说更是如此，它既是这一特征的表现，也是推动传统审美伦理性特点形成的思想动力。《论语》中孔子关于美的看法就很有代表性。
在“美”与“善”的关系上，孔子曾说：“君子成人之美，不成人之恶。小人反是。”(《论语·颜渊篇》)可见在孔子之时，“美”与“善”还存在着互换使用的现象，又如子张问孑L子“何谓五美”，孔子答日：“君子惠而不费，劳而不怨，欲而不谈，泰而不骄，威而不猛。”(《论语·尧日篇》)直陈出五种德行。但这并非意味着孔子对“美”和“善”的使用是没有分别的，比如孔子评论《韶》“尽美矣，又尽善也”，评论《武》“尽美矣，未尽善也”(论语·八佾篇)，足见二者不同。然而这也不能说明孔子已经具有了独立自觉的美学标准，《韶》或《武》都是古乐舞，以艺术自觉的眼光来看，这当然是属于艺术表演，但在那个艺术没有独立和自觉的时代，同样的欣赏活动就不纯然是审美活动了。故而孔子在对乐舞进行鉴赏评论时，在总体把握上就不会采取单纯的美学尺度。对《韶》、《武》的评价来看，孔子无疑是认为《韶》要优于《武》的，原因就在于“尽善”与否。舜有德，尧把位置禅让给他，《韶》乐和赞美舜有关，而《武》所赞美的武王，是以武力取得了政权，孔子对于这一点不甚认可，认为其“未尽善”，可见伦理标准在孔子对乐舞欣赏的判断中起了多大作用!
在类似于“形式”与“内容”关系的“文”“质”关系和“言”“德”关系上，孔子认为“质胜文则野，文胜质则史。文质彬彬，然后君子”(《论语·雍也篇》)，虽然看起来是将“文”“质”同等看待了，但“文质彬彬”所成就的是“君子”，仍然是从伦理学着眼的。又如“有德者必有言，有言者不必有德”(《论语·宪问篇》)，在这一句中，孔子把德行和一个人的言辞用必然关系相联系，结合他“巧言令色，鲜矣仁”、“恶利口之覆家邦者”等等其他语录可以看得出，他真正看重的还是德行。
而在对待《诗》和“乐”上，孔子首先着眼的是它们的道德教化作用。“兴于诗、立于礼、成于乐”(《论语·泰伯篇》)、“诗，可以兴，可以观，可以群，可以怨。迩之事父，远之事君；多识于鸟兽草木之名”(《论语·阳货篇》)都体现了这一点。《阳货篇》有言：“乐云乐云，钟鼓云乎哉?”可见孔子认为“乐”不仅仅只是敲敲钟鼓弄出乐音这么一个简单的形式，而是因为它蕴含的思想能给人熏陶，能陶冶人心，净化风俗。所以孔子说：“文之以礼乐，亦可以为成人矣。”(《论语·宪问篇》)
(二)将物比人的“比德”思想
将自然万物的美与人的美德相联系，也是传统审美文化的一大伦理性特点。在《诗经》中已有体现，比如《小雅·白驹》：“皎皎白驹，在彼空谷。生刍一束，其人如玉。”以“皎皎白驹”比拟隐逸林中的高洁之士。《秦风·小戎》：“言念君子，温其如玉。”以玉的温润比拟君子品格宽和。在《论语·雍也》中则有“智者乐水，仁者乐山”，将山之稳重不迁比仁者宽厚的胸怀安静的性情，将水之灵动不拘比智者敏捷的思维好动的性情。屈原的《离骚》以佩饰香草比喻个人的美德和多才多艺：“纷吾既有此内美兮，又重之以修能。扈江离与辟芷兮，纫秋兰以为佩。”以草木凋零、美人将暮比拟报国的衷情和焦虑：“日月忽其不淹兮，春与秋其代序。惟草木之零落兮，恐美人之迟暮。”而他的《桔颂》则以桔树比拟其高洁的情怀和独立不羁的精神，“后皇嘉树，桔徕服兮。受命不迁，生南国兮。固深难徙，更壹志兮……苏世独立，横而不流兮。闭心自慎，终不失过兮。秉德无私，参天地兮”。如此发展下去，后世把梅兰竹菊称为“四君子”，成为历代文人墨客吟哦赋诗、挥洒作画的经典对象。宋代周敦颐的《爱莲说》是“比德”影响创作的极好例证：“水陆草木之花，可爱者甚蕃。晋陶渊明独爱菊；自李唐来，世人盛爱牡丹；予独爱莲之出淤泥而不染，濯清涟而不妖，中通外直，不蔓不枝，香远益清，亭亭净植，可远观而不可亵玩焉。予谓菊，花之隐逸者也；牡丹，花之富贵者也；莲，花之君子者也。”
(三)伦理判断影响审美判断
传统审美文化的伦理性特点还表现在对艺术作品进行审美判断的时候，往往会受到伦理判断的影响，甚至伦理判断还会起到第一位的决定作用。
典型的例子就是“因人废字”。司马光《治通鉴》有言：德胜才谓之君子，才胜德谓之小人。很多人认为把人品低下的书家的书法作品收藏家中，等于收藏了邪恶之气，不仅玷污了家风，也有损于自己的人品。因此，奸臣蔡京、秦桧、严蒿等虽堪称书法大家，但他们的书法作品留传下来的却极少。书法史上有“苏黄米蔡”的“宋四家”之说，前三位均无疑问，唯独“蔡”，有人认为是蔡襄，有人认为是蔡京。最早对宋四家进行解释的应当是明初的王绂，他在《书画传习录》中提到宋四家的“蔡”是指蔡京，而后人因为蔡京是宋徽宗一朝的奸臣，遂以蔡襄代之。
宋徽宗的“瘦金体”，从艺术上来看，横画收笔带钩，竖画收笔带点，撇如匕首，捺如切刀，每笔的尾钩都异常锐利、力透纸背，体现出宋徽宗极高的艺术天赋，然而因为徽宗朝奸相辅政，宦官掌兵，徽宗本人又贪恋女色等等原因，竟使得“瘦金体”落有“柔媚轻浮”、“锋芒毕露”的评语。
二．传统审美文化伦理性特点的成因
如果将“美”字进行字源考察，就会发现中国传统审美文化从萌芽时期就与实用性有着关联，不论是“羊大为美”还是“羊人为美”，都有着很强的实用性意味。《说文解字》云：“美，甘也。从羊，从大。羊在六畜主给膳也。美与善同意。”宋代徐铉补注《说文》日：“羊大则美，故从大。”也就是说羊的体肥毛密不仅体现着旺盛的生命力，而且在味觉上给人以肥美味甘的味觉感受。而在甲骨文和金文中“美”字都是由上边的“羊”和下边的“人”组成，在甲骨文中，“大”训“人”，汉字的造字是有比类取象原则的，在羊的下部画上“大”象，有一种促进羊繁殖生长的巫术意味。审美最初与实用相联系并不难理解，但中国传统审美文化又是因何逐步表现出伦理性特点的呢?笔者分析可能与以下两点原因有关：超级秘书网
(一)长期处于宗法社会
人类社会的发展轨迹，大体上都是由氏族血缘政治向文明地缘政治进化。
(二)儒家伦理思想的熏陶
前边已经提到，一种思想既是其文化土壤特征的反映，又在相当程度上推动文化特征的发展。儒家思想诞生于宗法制的文化背景下，而且又是主张维护这种文化秩序的。由于学说本身的强大生命力，在统治者的扶植下，儒家思想“君君，臣臣，父父，子子”的伦常主张，“三纲五常”的秩序规则，一步步地形成深厚的文化积淀，最终形成了家国同构的社会现实和忠孝一体的伦理观念。
个的所谓文学的时代(即使不是全部)将不复存在。哲学、精神分析学都在劫难逃,甚至连情书也不能幸免。”而对国内文论界影响甚大的美国学者米勒也断言:“文学研究的时代已经过去了,再也不会出现这样一个时代——为了文学自身的目的。撇开理论或政治方面的考虑而去单纯研究文学……文学研究从来就没有正当时的时候,不论过去现在还是将来。”①在这些危言耸听的论调中,他们断言在媒介化时代,“文学的时代”或“文学研究的时代”已不复存在。国内学者也为此展开了激烈的论争。然而从事实看,“文学终结”的判断不免过于悲观,只不过是文学已失去往昔的光环和影响,文学的生产、传播和接受方式发生了前所未有的变化。在这个“图像化”时代,文学的身影早就穿越抽象的语言文字符号而游荡于电影、电视和互联网。瓦尔特?本雅明早在其《机械复制时代的艺术》中就提出“新的技术、新的生产和消费方式将创造出一种全新的生活方式,因而对文学产生根本性的影响”②。从这个意义上说,传媒时代的文学并没有终结,而是以更加多样化的形态活跃在我们的生活中。最为显着的就是在传播媒体发达的今天,文学传播的方式和途径不再局限于语言文字媒介,其跨媒体传播成为现实,尤其文学作品与影视传媒的关系愈益密切。本文在分析文学作品影视化生存现状的基础上,着重探讨文学与影视传媒之间的差异与联系。
一
从历史的追溯来看,文学作品与影视之间有着源远流长的关系。曾有人做过细致的统计,自有电影以来,大约70%以上的中外故事片都改编自文学名着(主要是小说)。可以说,文学作品是影视创作的重要源泉,影视艺术的长足进步都受益于文学艺术。从我们熟悉的中国影视剧现状来看,从20世纪80年代起我国影视事业发展迅猛。文学作品的身影不断出现于荧屏上。从古典文学名着《水浒传》《西游记》《三国演义》《红楼梦》的一再翻拍,从红色经典到名家名作等现代文学作品的改编,再到当代作家作品不断被搬上影视屏幕,可以列出一长串名单:《日出》《雷雨》《铁道游击队》《青春之歌》《敌后武工队》《家》《子夜》《倾城之恋》《四世同堂》《金粉世家》《啼笑姻缘》《亮剑》《大雪无痕》《乔家大院》,等等,琼瑶的言情小说、金庸的武侠着作大多都被改编为电视剧。近几年收视率高的电视剧几乎无一不是来自于改编。不仅如此,小说改编为电影的数量也很庞大。80年代的《芙蓉镇》《黄土地》《红高粱》等优秀电影作品都是改编自文学作品,我国第五代导演蜚声世界影坛的影片几乎都是来自于对文学原着的改编。这可以当代作品的改编状况为例,如王朔的《顽主》《轮回》《大喘气》《一半是火焰,一半是海水》《永失我爱》,根据《动物凶猛》改编的《阳光灿烂的日子》;苏童的小说《妻妾成群》改成了《大红灯笼高高挂》,还有《红粉》和《米》也相继改编成电影;张平的作品《抉择》改编成电影《生死抉择》后,创造了国产影片票房的佳绩。
可见,影视一直就与文学作品携手共进。当代很多作家与电影、电视结下不解之缘。如琼瑶、王朔、海岩、池莉、王海翎等。说到底,影视作品以文学作品为底本可以事半功倍,而以知名度高的经典着作和畅销书为改编对象,更可以吸引观众注意。作为作家本人来说,作品改编后的经济效益要远远高于稿酬,文学创作一般以字数计稿酬,千字一二百元钱,而电视剧名家稿酬一集多达上万元;另外,随着影视作品的流行,作家的知名度可以得到大大提升。
因此,从改编作品的数量看,文学作品的影视化生存已是不可否认的事实。既然如此,就有必要在理论上澄清如下问题:如何看待文学的这种跨媒体传播?两者究竟是天敌还是盟友?文学与影视之间既有差异又有关联,从抽象的符号载体到生动的图像艺术的转变对文学来说到底是利是弊?文学与影视如何实现良性互动?
二
尽管文学与影视有着密切关联,但两者在诸多方面有着不同。
其一,传播符号不同——形象的间接性与直接性。文学是一种语言艺术,它的载体是抽象的语言符号。语言与其他艺术所使用的材料相比,最为自由和灵活,它能直 接表现现实和想象中的事物;而且它能够深刻细腻地传达思想情感,表现人丰富的内心世界。这与影视作品直接的、感性的画面不同。形象的间接性能够给读者的想象留下了广阔的心理空间,而在图像中,一切都直接、生动。不识字的观众也可以欣赏剧情,画面的视觉吸引比起阅读来更直接、更轻松。这使得许多读者直接放弃阅读转而看影视剧。&ldquo
;如今文学似乎进入了一个‘看图’时代,文学与影、视、网络的合一使之在很大程度上从传统的语言艺术变成‘图像艺术’:电视剧是将小说变成了图像,诗TV、散文TV是将诗文变成了图像,MTV是将歌曲变成了图像。”③
其二,创作过程不同——标准化与个性化。这体现在文学创作与影视制作过程的不同。影视文艺的编导与制作强调标准化和模式化,这与传统文学强调的独立性、个人性、自主性完全不同。影视传媒是与商业和娱乐紧密相连的艺术样式和工业生产形式,影视剧是一个多行当、多部门共同参与的综合性艺术,从市场可行性方案到剧本的创作与修改,再到主创人员的确定包括编剧、导演、演员、摄影、录像、美工、服装、道具,等等,加上前期拍摄到后期制作、发行销售等各个环节。而文学创作相对来说简单得多,在作家创作个性、情感、想象、直觉等心理因素的共同作用下,创作出独创性的文本。可见,不同于电影的标准化、工业化、模式化,文学创作更是偏向于个人化。
其三,创作目的不同——商业性与文学性。正因为影视剧制作是工业化产品,它更多地遵循商业原则,一切以市场效益为判断标准,简单地说就是要追求收视率,追求票房。任何一部电影或电视剧的制作离不开大量的资金,姑且不论大片动辄上亿的大投入,就是一般制作的电影成本也是上百万、上千万之多,有投入就要考虑产出。而在纯文学创作中更多地注重作家独特的人生体验与语言表达,是一种非功利性的精神活动。
正因为如此两者有着诸多差异,作为独立的艺术门类,它们有不同的艺术发展规律。当文学文本转换为影视文本时,由于节奏、载体、性质的不同,两者会产生一系列的转换,这就涉及转换过程中的重要环节——改编。在以往文学的影像改编中,通常遵循的是忠实于原着的准则,在作品主题内涵、人物形象等方面,严格依照原着进行改编。“在这种转换中,文学原着的美学风格和精神内涵,通常是整体性地被移植到影像作品之中,虽然原着中的情节、人物有不同程度的删减和改变,但主体部分、审美内质并未发生变化,甚至许多局部和细节的改动,是为了更好地强化、提升和拓展原着的审美内质和精神内涵。”④比如以《围城》《三国演义》为代表的改编实践,将原着深刻的思想文化内涵纳入通俗化的表现形态之中,其经典魅力在新的媒介形态中得到了延续和拓展。
而随着消费文化的盛行,影视产业商业化的色彩愈益影响到文学作品的改编过程。当前的文学改编大多已不再遵循忠实于原着的原则。为了追求收视率和票房,情节结构被随心所欲地调整;为了迎合观众的趣味,人物形象被随意颠覆或解构,哗众取宠之作比比皆是。除此之外,某些根据文学作品改编的影视艺术作品由于影视的标准化、模式化而损害了原着深刻的审美意蕴 。为了追求收视率和娱乐性,将文学娱乐化、庸俗化地进行“改编”,尤其对一些经典作品的改编简直就是歪曲和亵渎。这种所谓的“改编”只是打着幌子,丝毫不尊重文学原着的内容与主题。对文学文本的肆意改编,一味地以大众审美趣味为核心进行影视文本的创作,无疑会损害文学作品的审美价值;反之,这种肆意改编也会影响影视剧的口碑。总之,从文学抽象的语言符号转换为影视直观生动的图像符号,不能无视文学作品本身,而应在尊重作品的基础上根据影视艺术的特征加以改编。
三
文学作品的影视化生存对作品本身而言意味着什么?是影视传媒对文学的压迫和挤压,还是文学借助影视传媒的延伸和拓展?不同学者给出不同的回答。国内有学者提出:“在这场美学革命中,电影以其逼真性对于艺术的规则进行了重新的定义,在资本经济的协同作用下,作为艺术场域的后来居上者,它迫使文学走向边缘。在此语境压力下,文学家能够选择的策略是或者俯首称臣,沦为电影文学脚本的文学师,或者以电影的叙事逻辑为模仿对象,企图接受电影的招安,或者以种种语言或叙事企图冲出重围,却不幸跌入无人喝彩的寂寞沙场。……文学的黄昏已然来临。”⑤这样的看法其实仅代表现实中的一种倾向:文学成为电视、电影的附庸。客观来看,影视传媒确实对文学形成 冲击,读者的数量锐减,文学期刊的发行一蹶不振。但同时我们也应该看到,影视传媒的发展给文学文本带来新的发展契机,文学的生命力在新传媒中得到延伸。现实中因影视剧的播放而带动读者阅读的状况也时有发生。而对影视剧来说,其发展从一开始便与文学密不可分,将文学作品搬上荧幕,丰富了影视的审美价值。 因此,文学与影视
之间并不存在绝对的矛盾,两者之间应该实现良性互动。一方面,影视因尊重文学而获得了强大的艺术生命力;另一方面,文学应该广泛吸取影视的有益手段与技巧进一步丰富和拓展文学的表达,文学也因有了影视的传播而产生更深远的影响。两者应该在和谐互动中寻求共存共荣。需要注意的是,文学应避免沦落为影视的附庸;影视不应以牺牲文学价值为代价而片面追求收视率和票房,应尊重文学作品,两者的结盟才能相得益彰。可见,小说与影视的结合应保持各自的相对独立才能互相补充。
总之,文学和影视有着不同的艺术规律和表达方式,它们的最终产品分别代表着两种不同的美学种类,彼此之间并不存在非此即彼的敌对关系。影视有其优势,文字亦有其特点,文学和影视、文字与图像将会永远并存,共同充实着人们的精神世界。
注释:
① J?希利斯?米勒:《全球化时代文学研究还会继续存在吗?》,《文学评论》,2001年第1期。
② [德]本雅明:《机械复制时代的艺术》 ,李伟、郭东编译,重庆出版集团,2006年版,第38页。
众所周知，西方启蒙运动之后，随着人的理性和主体性的觉醒，在工业革命带来的现代观念语境条件下，先后催生了印象、后印象、立体、构成、未来等各种艺术风格和诸多流派的登场演绎。一般来说，我们认为的西方现代绘画艺术的发端大概要源自于马奈的绘画作品《草地上的午餐》。
画面上那有违传统道德和生活逻辑的两个女固然是引起当时人们争论的焦点，但事实证明，画面呈现的平面感与弱化再现的构成因素，却是后来现代审美不可或缺的重要特征。不幸的是，这种物质审美特征随着西方现代艺术的发展最后在二十世纪中叶之后的极简艺术和紧随其后的观念艺术中几乎丧失殆尽，最后连绘画本身都几近取消，终于现代艺术在所谓“纯粹”中概念化和哲学化。
的确，我们很难想象现代绘画的归宿居然是在纯粹的“哲学化” 和“概念化”中终结的，事实上，被公认为现代绘画艺术起源的马奈的作品却并不是纯理性的哲学概念的外化。wWw.133229.Com尽管形式主义从某种意义上来说，是典型的现代主义表征，——这个我们可以从其后的立体派、构成主义等风格作品上明显看到这种“工业社会”生成的美学特点。但对于马奈那违反逻辑的“大片色块”和“大块面”的构图来说，也并不完全是纯粹的抽象样式，或者仅仅是略带平面空间的意味，尽管我们现在已无法知晓当时马奈的真正意图，但也许这样处理才使得画面本身更像一幅符合现代审美语境下的作品。正如当时左拉评论的那样：“马奈并没有承担描绘某种抽象思想或某个历史事件片段的工作。” 也就是说，马奈既能从一般的叙事性题材中抽取出偶然的和非规范的审美因素，同时又避免了哲学化的绝对形而上。
的确，美学终究不等同于哲学，我们知道，尽管美学与哲学这两门学科看似若即若离，其实，古希腊哲学家亚里斯多德的《诗学》，正是基于美的特质才保持了它的独立性并赋予了它与哲学并行不悖的特殊地位；于是才有了黑格尔将物质呈现的“美”断言为“理念的感性显现”；克莱夫·贝尔的形式主义理论尽管为此后的抽象主义大开了方便之门，但他的“有意味的形式”显然向人们昭示着其形式仍在审美的范畴之内，他对其界定为“以一种特定方式组合的线条与色彩的组合，激起我们审美情感的某些形式和形式关系。”
毫无疑问，当格林伯格那极端的“非常接近装饰”的现代主义绘画理想最终实现时，此时的现代主义风格样式仍然显示着二十世纪中叶前卫艺术实验性的蓬勃生机，为什么呢？因为它仍然还没有取消物质上的审美形式。
我们不妨对照传统意义上那些强调体积空间的自然主义构图格局与现代主义早期绘画中那些二维平面性画面上的形式，除了造型和空间形式的处理不同之外，我们将会看到一个共同的特点：这就是物质审美特质和美学形式仍然是两者的共同之处。尽管现代审美有别于传统意义上的“审美”范式。遗憾的是二十世纪六十年代之后的现代主义绘画最终抛弃了这种物质审美因素，终于使现代主义绘画走向枯竭已成为不可避免。
可以说，物质审美的缺失从某种意义上说，是物质的失落，是对具有审美意义下的物质因素的取消和否定。勿庸讳言，物质审美的缺失，艺术的纯粹哲学化，将无异于艺术的自杀！
假若说西方现代主义绘画是在十九世纪末对以三维透视为主的自然写实的传统审美的可信性提出质疑的话，那么早在我国晚唐时期，张彦远在《历代名画记》中就指出：“传移模写，乃画家末事。”并提出了“经营位置，则画之总要” [1]一说，这种经营构成的审美思路是在继谢赫的“六法论”上的一个发展和提升，多少有些类似现代的审美倾向，与西方现代绘画的形式美学和构成美学是不是有着异曲同工之妙呢？当然，需要指出的是，中西方对写实绘画的变革是基于两种不同的哲学观、认识论和审美价值取向为出发点的，同时两者的变革所产生的文化和社会背景也是不同的。同时也需要指出的是，虽然两者从发生的时间和社会文化背景上不可同日而语，但艺术品味却往往并不因此而出现先进与落后之分。
有意思的是，对于这一点在以后这两种艺术主张的生成和发展过程中却出现了两种不同的结果：中国是以“文人画”的水墨审美形式取代了传统的写实形式，最高精神品格的审美样式是追求“逸格”，笔法上体现的正如宗炳提出的“山水以形媚道”[2]。《宣和画谱》中云：“进乎妙，则不知艺之为道，道之为艺。”其妙处是“道艺合一”，正如宗白华所解释的：“‘道’尤表象于‘艺’，灿烂的‘艺’赋予‘道’以形象和生命，‘道’给予‘艺’以深度和灵魂。”然而，西方的现代绘画却在以后自由地实验各种各样的观念和材料运用之后，最后完全超脱了以物质审美作为依托，变成了纯精神的抽象概念。
值得耐人寻味的是，以西方惯有的以物质审美方式介入艺术的传统一夜之间几乎彻底颠覆。这使得观念艺术家伯尔金（v.burgin）无不沮丧地惊呼：“我于1965年被迫放弃了绘画，因为它是一种陈旧过时的技巧，这真是一个十分残酷的原因。” [3]
物质审美的缺失让艺术家的无奈竟至如此，这无异于是对西方现代绘画的一个嘲弄。
参考文献：
[1]何志明、潘运告编著 .《唐五代画论——历代名画记》（第一版）[m].长沙：湖南美术出版社， 1997.4
1. Introduction 1
2. Definition and Types of Business Culture 1
2.1 Definition of Business Culture 1
2.2 Types of Business Culture 2
3. Differences and Conflicts between American and Chinese Business Culture 4
3.1 Different Structure and hierarchy in American and Chinese companies 4
3.2 Differences in Concepts and Values of American and Chinese Business Culture 7
4. Mutual-Adjustment of the Two Business Cultures 9
5.Conclusion 11
Acknowledgements 13
Bibliography: 14
1． Introduction
Business culture is the result of the commodity economy and the market economy. The so-called business culture, representing the method the company is using for the achievement of its unique purpose, is managing philosophy of arts in a company. In a word, business culture leads to the concept value of the company, the physical and psychical appearance of the whole staff, and the spiritual backbone of the company.
From the prospective of the long development view, the forming of the business culture is also the process of setting up the company brand name. Through gaining the public recognition of enterprise identification, the company is also exploring the broader market space. For setting up a successful enterprise brand name needs more than the investment, the equipment and technique input. A unique business culture is also a must. The cultural factor will be a vital force not only in the development of enterprises, but also in the process of raising the enterprise recognition and setting up of the brand name.
This article aims to analyze and debug conflicts between American culture and Chinese culture, expecting to provide a model for Chinese company business culture construction.
2. Definition and Types of Business Culture
2.1 Definition of Business Culture
Many articles and books have been written in recent years about culture in organizations, usually referred to as "Business culture". Here business culture refers to "the moral, social, and behavioral norms of an organization based on the beliefs, attitudes, and priorities of its members". Business culture is not a list of values developed at an offsite by the executive team and framed on the wall in their lobbies. These are ideals. Every organization has its own unique culture or value set. Most organizations don't consciously try to create a certain culture. The culture of the organization is typically created unconsciously, based on the values of the top management or the founders of an organization. In reality, what management pays attention to and rewards is often the strongest indicator of the business culture. This is often quite different from the values it verbalizes or the ideals it strives for. Culture drives the organization and its actions. It is somewhat like "the operating system" of the organization. It guides how employees think, act and feel. It is dynamic and fluid, and it is never static. A culture may be effective at one time, under a given set of circumstances and ineffective at another time. There is no generically good culture. There are, however, generic patterns of health and pathology.
2.2 Types of Business Culture
Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner’s classification of the business culture is based on two dimensions, universalism-particularism and individualism-collectivism thus generating four quadrants. The dimensions they used to distinguish different business culture are equality-hierarchy and orientation to the person-orientation to the task. These two dimensions enable them to define four types of business culture. The four types can be described as family culture, Eiffel Tower culture, guided missile culture and incubator culture.
Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner point out that these four types of business culture are “ideal types”. While in practice, the types are mixed or overlaid with one another. It’s rather complicated than our imagination. And this classification is useful for exploring the basis of each type in terms of how employees learn, change, resolve conflicts, reward, motivate and so on. (Wang, 2001:28)
2.2.1 Family Culture
According to Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner, the metaphor of family culture poses a kind of close relationship within the whole organization. “ It is personal and at the same time hierarchical，in the sense that the ‘father’ of the family has experience and authority greatly exceeding those of his ‘children’, especially when they are young. As a result, the leader in the organization is regarded as a caring father who knows better than his subordinates what should be done and what is good for them. However, rather than being threatening, this type of power is essentially intimate and (hopefully) benign. The work of the corporation in this type of culture is usually carried forward in an atmosphere that in many respects mimics the home.” (Fons Trompenaars,2001:24)
Father is always the represent ative of power and authority at home, especially in the Asian countries. However, he is also a caring father, whose power and authority seems quite intimate and benign, not threatening at all. (Here the absolute authority posed by some arbitrary leaders is exclusive in this setting). To some extend, the subordinates are passive to accept the arrangement and order of the father, but this order could essentially bring benefits to them. And the benign atmosphere of a big family is quite humanistic.
2.2.2 Eiffel Towel culture
As mentioned above, the nepotism within an organization would be regarded as corruption and a conflict of interest by some cultures for the reason that they emphasize on the various roles and functions prescribed in advance. They’re role-orientated. Everyone of the organization has been placed in a certain place, being responsible for the certain work prescribed by his or her supervisors. If every one of them dedicated to carry out their work successfully, the whole organization would be run smoothly forward. In other words, the whole organization assembles a pyramid，forming a certain kind of hierarchy. Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner have chosen the Eiffel Towel in Paris to symbolize this culture type, “because it is steep, symmetrical, narrow at the top and broad at the base, stable, rigid and robust.” (Fons Trompenaars,2001:32)
It’s characteristic to some degree to assemble that of the work hierarchy in role-orientated corporations. And more importantly, “its structure, too, is more important than its function”. Therefore, the organization, including the supervisors and the subordinates, pay their attention to the structure of the organization rather than the functions. Function would be taken over by structure under certain circumstances.
2.2.3 Guided Missile Culture
Equality, or the egalitarian，is the characteristic of guided missile culture. Everyone in an organization has taken up an unchangeable place and no one could be replaced by another. The role of each individual has been greatly emphasized. Moreover, “the guided missile culture is oriented to tasks, typically undertaken by teams or project groups”. Team and project group is the focus of their work. To some extent, accomplishing a project usually becomes the goal for the supervisors and subordinates.
The guided missile culture differs from the family culture type and the Eiffel Towel culture type. Egalitarian within an organization is emphasized rather than the interpersonal relationship that is typical in the family culture type. Changes come quickly to the guided missile culture. New project and target will come, and new groups will be formed, and new boss of the project will be nominated soon. Consequently, loyalties to professions and projects are greater than loyalties to the company. “The guided missile culture is in many respects the antithesis of the family culture, in which bonds are close and ties are of long duration and deep affection.” (Fons Trompenaars,2001:51)
Therefore, due to their task-orientated characteristics, it resembles the Eiffel Towel culture. The Eiffel Towel culture nevertheless pays attention to their inner structure rather than the egalitarian among the members, while the results of a project is what the guided missile culture emphasizes, not the means to accomplish it.
2.2.4 Incubator Culture
According to Fons Trompenaars and Charles Hampden-Turner，the incubator culture is based on the existential idea that organizations are secondary to the fulfilment of individuals. The individuality is the most influential value within this kind of organizations. The cultural incubator is quite similar to the logic of business. Both of them are designed to free individuals from the routines to more creative activities and to minimize time spent on self-maintenance. As a result, “incubators often, if not always, operate in an environment of intense emotional commitment”. (Fons Trompenaars,2001:75) The employees and the employers are working toward a common goal, to bring something beneficial to the society and the mankind. And the well-being of themselves is not so important compared with the greatness of the work they’re undertaken. For example, the computer could bring “power to the person”, and the gene-splicing could save crops, save lives, rescue the economy. They enjoy the process of creating and innovating. And that’s the pleasure of their lives. Thus the shared enthusiasm and super-ordinate goals constitute the invisible tie that forms the close relationships among the work partners, thus creating an honest, effective, nurturing working atmosphere.
3. Differences and Conflicts between American and Chinese Business Culture
3.1 Different Structure and hierarchy in American and Chinese companies
3.1.1 Structure and hierarchy in American companies
American culture has some key conc epts and values such as individualism, low context culture and egalitarianism.
Individualism: The concept of individualism in the US plays a significant role in the lives of many Americans. American culture emphasizes individual initiative and personal achievement. Independence and self-reliance are highly valued and also extend to the workplace where business is frequently carried out autonomously. Consequently, one’s position in US society is determined by one’s own achievements as oppose to status or age.
Low context culture: Generally speaking, those cultures described as low context tend to communicate meaning and information explicitly through words. Americans are task-centered and thus the primary purpose of communication is to exchange information, facts, and opinions. In the US, conflict is dealt with directly and openly, and for this reason, Americans will not hesitate to say “no” or criticize others in public. This direct style of speech is often interpreted by foreigners as rude and may cause embarrassment to business people who are unaccustomed to such explicit communication. However, it is important to remember that in a business context it bears no relation to personal feelings and should not be taken as such.
Egalitarianism: An important element of American culture is the concept of equality. Despite the many differences within American society, there is a collective understanding of the notion of equality that underlines many social relationships in the US. Americans believe in having equal rights, equal social obligations, and equal opportunities based on the concept of individual merit. Consequently, there is a general lack of deference in the US to people of greater wealth, age, higher social status or authority. This is evident in the way in which titles are seldom used in business environments and how Americans call each other by their first names almost immediately. Egalitarianism also contributes to the system of merit frequently referred to as the “American Dream”, whereby hard work deserves success and financial prosperity. This in turn can often cause a dichotomy in the workplace and office hierarchy displaying a clear distinction between management and their subordinates.
In a country famous for its individualism and diversity, the organization and structure of companies within the US may differ according to the industry, region or company history. However, we can generally find that office hierarchy within an American company is extremely important.
Negotiations and final decisions in the US are frequently made by one person who has chief authority. Team negotiations are rarely carried out in American companies. In accordance with American business culture, the hierarchical chain of command often supersedes personal relationships. Personal competence, professionalism, and accountability for individual performance are highly valued in American business culture. As a result, managers are only approached for help in essential situations. These concepts also contribute to the highly competitive work ethic often experienced in the US. Developing personal relationships are not as significant in US business culture as they are in some Asian countries. In the United States, the overall goal of business is to secure the best deal, therefore forming company relationships are of greater value. And it is common for Americans to make clear distinctions between work colleagues and friends in their social life. In the US, meetings tend to be rather formal and little time is spent on cultivating social relationships.
3.1.2 Structure and hierarchy in Chinese companies
Chinese imperial history is seen to play out in the modern-day business realm. The operation of a company bears much resemblance to a Chinese dynastic empire that existed hundreds or thousands of years ago. A patriarchal and totalitarian system is central to corporate management style in a Chinese-owned company. Similarities abound between the empire and the company in areas ranging from the power core set-up, to emperor-minister (boss-manager) relationship, to behavioral patterns amongst ministers (managers).
The Chinese corporate boss, like the emperor, assumes absolute power over his company and is unlikely to relinquish it to his heirs until his death. It does not matter whether he is a Western educated MBA or just a high school graduate. As long as he is an ethnic Chinese, it is more likely than not that he considers himself the “emperor” of his company and treats his employees as though they were his subjects. He is the sole decision-making person and is accountable to no one within the company’s management hierarchy. It is highly unlikely that he would want to share his power with any one.
In the modern-day corporate arena, the Chinese boss plays the emperor’s role and acts in pretty much the same way. In this scenario, the role of dynastic ministers is taken by senior managers while that of subjects is taken by other staff members. To keep a tight rein on senior managers, the boss usually requires them to report in detail their activities in frequent regular meetings. They are expected to devote their heart and mind fully to serving the boss at all hours. Even then, the boss still would not trust his senior managers to take part in important decision making, not unless they have been with the company for at least twenty years.
In their contest for the boss’s attention, some senior managers spend far more time in engaging in slimy politics than doing real work within the corporate confines. Their chief aim is to please the boss and his clan (especially his spouse or lover, and sometimes his secretary) in whatever way they can, because that is the surest way of getting favors from him. In proving their worth to him, managers must do their best to discredit their rivals, either explicitly or furtively. They consider their peers as their natural enemies.
If one word can epitomize the interpersonal relationship within such a company, it is “distrust”, and it starts from the top. But it is hard to find an explanation for the everlasting lust for absolute power and absolute control.
3.2 Differences in Concepts and Values of America and Chinese Business Culture
The differences between American and Chinese business culture are extensive, particularly when it comes to direct communication between buyers and sellers. How well you understand Chinese and American business cultures can mean the difference between a successful career and a failed one.
Family Business Dynamic: In America, if an enterprise is said to be "family owned and operated", people typically think it is "cute" and "quaint". For the Chinese business culture, however, this is the norm. Business models are operated based on family obligations rather than the pursuit of riches, a custom that was strengthened by Confucianism.
Purpose of Business: In the Chinese business culture, the purpose of owning a business is to provide for one's family. In most cases, the business is run primarily by the dominant family head, to whom all other family members and employees defer. He is responsible for making important decisions, hiring new employees and executing changes. Unlike the American business culture, the Chinese don't follow an organized chain of command except for purposes of appearance. It isn't rare for a middle-management employee to take a question directly to the dominant family head, rather than observing protocol through the chain of command.
Financial Disclosure: Most large corporations in America are publicly traded, which means that they are also publicly scrutinized. The Chinese, on the other hand, are far more private about financial matters, and usually keep the majority of that information to themselves. They file their taxes, but keep a separate set of books for the dominant family head.
Sources of Financing: American businesses are funded largely by financial institutions, private lenders, and the sale of securities. Chinese businesses, on the other hand, are largely financed by the family. They might take out loans with friends of the family or use familial connections to secure investment funds, but they don't typically look outside private sources. Because of this, the Chinese business culture is based primarily on the informal impressions of the dominant family head. This extends not only into financing, but also executive decisions, hiring, firing and acquisitions.
Sales & Marketing: In America, the companies rely on advertising and monetary incentives for sales and marketing. Most of their efforts in this area are concentrated on monetary gain and the most cost-effective ways to get the word into the community. The Chinese business culture, however, is much different in that they garner most sales through family connections.
Future Business: The Chinese business culture is centered on long-term profitable relationships and family honor. While Americans look at the current bottom line and this month's profits, a Chinese business will be more likely to view each transaction as an investment in the future.
Mindset about management hierarchy: In American business culture, rank and title are not as important as in they are in China. Hierarchical forms of behavior are frowned upon. The expectation is that subordinates will speak up, offer suggestions, push back and take initiative rather than just do what they’re told. Decisions tend to be less top-down, authority is more delegated, and managers expect team members to take responsibility and assume ownership of results.
Attitudes towards appointments and deadlines: For Americans, strict adherence to time commitments is seen as a basic principle of professionalism and courteous behavior. Because everything tends to be strictly scheduled, delays in one appointment or deadline can have a seriou s ripple effect on a colleague or customer’s other work commitments. The more flexible and open-ended approach to time of Chinese business culture can create tensions and unfavorable impressions on American counterparts.
Meaning of agreements and commitments: Americans have a preference for clear, detailed agreements and are uneasy with vague expressions of general commitment. In business interactions, commitments are taken literally and seriously. Failure to follow through on them precisely is viewed as a sign that a person is not trustworthy. Chinese business culture tends to view agreements more flexibly as intentions and guidelines for future action.
Results vs. process orientation: In Chinese business culture, following the rules and implementing correct processes is highly valued, but in American business culture, it’s all about results. There is impatience with individuals who come across as more concerned with following established processes correctly than with achieving the desired goal. Americans don’t like to be told all the procedural reasons why something can’t be or has not been done.
Directness – especially in addressing disagreements: The American style of communication is characteristically direct, candid, and relatively unconcerned with face-saving or the avoidance of conflict. The expectation is that questions will get answered with a clear “yes” or “no”, and that disagreements will be dealt with openly and straightforwardly, in a “tell it like it is” manner. Chinese people tending to avoid conflict and loss of face often find it hard to say “no” or raise problematic issues effectively with their American counterparts.
4. Mutual-Adjustment of the Two Business Cultures
Cultural awareness and the ability to adapt effectively to another culture’s way of doing things are complex skills. Everyone tends to take his own cultural ways of doing things for granted, and to assume they are self-evident to others. The cost in terms of cross-cultural communication blunders, project delays, team conflicts and overall productivity is considerable. In a CIO Magazine survey not long ago, 51% of the CIOs reported that cultural differences were their greatest challenge in offshore outsourcing. The long-held belief that technical qualifications are sufficient to ensure project success – and that the shared engineering or other professional culture is stronger than national differences in work styles – is gradually crumbling in the face of the everyday on-the-ground experience of global multicultural teams in the offshore and outsourcing environment.
As the foremost “hot spot” for America’s offshore and outsourcing of technology and business services functions today, China presents an important case study of differences in business culture. Recurring themes and incidents have been found that point to underlying cross-cultural differences in mindset, values and approach to business interactions.
In recent years, American companies have shown growing awareness of the hidden costs of cross-cultural mismatches in work-related behaviors. They have been willing to invest in general and region-specific cross-cultural training for their onshore employees and those who are asked to travel to China. They have also learned to devise process accommodations to circumvent the negative effects of certain cultural tendencies in their offshore teams and Chinese business partners.
What these companies seldom undertake to address directly is the need to seriously educate their offshore teams and inform their Chinese business partners the fundamentals of American business culture – the attitudes, thought patterns and behavior norms that Americans expect.
There is competitive advantage to be gained through serious attention to improving the cultural competency of offshore teams and Chinese business partners. Training in “soft skills” is no longer as undervalued in China as it used to be. Growing numbers of Chinese companies are coming to realize that the ability of their employees to communicate and interact more effectively is an important competitive factor. American companies in China are also showing more keenness to develop the business and leadership skills of their Chinese employees, and to move gradually from the cheap labor or staff augmentation model to one where the Chinese operation is a value-adding center excellence.
Knowledge and internalization of the attitudes, thought patterns and behavior norms of American and Chinese business cultures is a necessary ingredient of this scenario for the future. For Americans who do business with the Chinese, it is essential to find out who maintains the most power in the organization and deal directly with him and it is important to maintain respectful distance concerning financial matters. It might be appropriate in America to bring up quarterly reports and other public information, but the Chinese don't appreciate forthright discussion of finances. It is important to establish a personal connection with whoever makes the most important decisions. Tokens of appreciation, phone calls to inquire about customer satisfaction, and in-person visits to express interest are the best ways to ensure repeat sales. This is why many American businesses that work with Chinese corporations require extensive international travel of their sales personnel. What’s more, Americans must learn how to cultivate long-term relationships with the Chinese. Continued satisfaction with products and services is essential, as is a continued personal bond with those in charge.
And for the Chinese counterparts, they should get to know more about American business culture. In the US, punctuality is an essential part of business etiquette and as such scheduled appointments or meetings must be attended on time. Americans perceive lateness as a sign of disrespect.
Deadlines are strictly adhered to in American business culture. Americans place great emphasis on getting the best results in the quickest time. American counterparts may appear to be hasty in their decision-making. This, however, is due to the fact that the concept “time is money” is taken extremely seriously in the US.
It is customary to begin and end business meetings with a brief but firm handshake. Maintaining direct eye contact during this initial greeting and whenever in conversation is also essential.
The exchanging of business cards is a casual affair in the US and as such demands no clear ritual or set of rules. Americans regard business cards as a resource for future information. On the occasions when they are exchanged, it may be done either during introductions or when leaving.
During negotiations, it is important to remember that the aim of most business discussions in the US is to arrive at a signed contract. Americans consider negotiations as problem-solving situations based on mutual benefit and personal strengths. Therefore, emphasis is placed on one’s financial position and power.
When doing business with American counterparts, it is expected to adhere to rules and guidelines that US business counterparts must also follow. Company policy and business procedures such as legally binding contracts, are aspects of American business culture that require strict compliancy.
5．Conclusion
In the 21st century, with the development of knowledge-based economy and globalization of economy, competition among corporation is reflected in the cultural competition. The business culture is playing an important role in corporate survival and development, and it has become the cornerstone and key factors in corporation competition. Taking a panoramic view of successful corporations, each one has its own deep culture, but culture is the darkest area, and also the most challenging aspect which reflects in the values, moral and communication methods. It is also reflected in the habits of the staff. This shows that business culture is closely related to the corporation survival and development. Building business culture will surely become a hot topic.
As mentioned above, the business culture is a powerful force. Some material resources will be exhausted but the cultural resources are endless. The business culture is an invisible productivity, intangible assets and wealth. The business culture will greatly promote the development of corporation. If a corporation can make the relation between corporation and business culture harmonious, sufficient and active, the business culture will prompt a long-term development for corporation development.
Acknowledgements
My initial thanks go to my supervisor Zhou Yansha, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. Without his help, I could not have finished this dissertation.
I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books. My greatest personal debt is to my grandparents and parents, who have cultivated a soul of sensitivity, hospitality, and honesty out of me, and offered a harbor of happiness and sweetness for me.
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1.调整美术教育师资力量结构
以往，由于科学技术的限制，很多美术教师和美术专家只能局限于某个学校或者某个地区授课，学生对于外界的美术发展也没有充分的认知和了解。而数字化时代的主要特点就是信息的共享和通讯的即时化，如此一来，学校可以不定期地聘用国内外优秀的美术专家教授对学生进行网络授课，培养学生的美术技能和美术修养，学生也可以通过计算机了解更多的美术信息，欣赏更多的优秀美术作品。总体来说，数字化时代的美术教育师资力量结构得到了进一步的优化，教师队伍的建设更加合理。
2.催生美术教学内容的创新
一般来说，美术教育主要包括美术专业知识、美术专业技能、美术创意设计三个方面的内容。在数字化时代，虽然教师的知识传授仍然是学生学习专业知识的主要途径，但不是唯一的途径，专业技能和创意设计在教学过程中具有越来越重要的地位。此外，学生知识信息的来源更加广泛，这就要求美术教师必须时时刻刻更新教学内容，补充教学资料，否则教师的知识信息将有可能落后于学生。该将哪些知识通过在线授课传授给学生，又该将哪些内容作为课题授课的重点，也是值得每一位美术教师研究思考的。数字化时代带来的不仅仅是授课方式的变化，其更促使授课内容朝着网络授课和课堂授课两个方向发展。
3.带来更为广阔的教学资源
如今，美术教师已经不再抱着画笔、画板和课案来回奔波，开始更多地使用数字化技术产品——多媒体设施进行授课，主要原因就在于多媒体设施具有联网的优势，可以让教师随时调动全球优秀艺术大师的作品供学生欣赏，使教学资源不再局限于课堂之内。如，以往讲授欧美印象派的相关美术作品时，教师只能通过文字让学生感受其美术作品的特点或者准备一些照片让学生观察，但在数字化时代，教师可以通过互联网技术搜索该画派的著名作品，可以通过网络即时与学生交流。另外，现在很多艺术馆都有自己的网络平台，教师可以通过这些平台了解最新的艺术动向，进而提高学生学习的有效性和针对性。可以说，数字化时代的教学资源使得美术教育摆脱了闭门造车的教学方式，有利于教师利用全球的教学资源促进美术教育的发展。
4.促进美术教学形式的改革
目前，美术教育以班级教育为主，但是由于美术教育的特点，师徒传授在美术教育中仍或多或少地存在，从本质上来说，师徒传授对于培养优秀的美术人才有着巨大的作用，但是这种教育方式会造成教学资源的浪费。随着数字化时代的到来，师徒传授和班级教学完美结合的可能性出现了，使用数字化产品，可以在发挥班级授课的信息交流优势的同时，突出个别化培养艺术个性的特点。如网络论坛组织上的讨论交流、电子邮件的作业修改等，这些方式既保留了班级授课的优点，也在一定程度上拓展了教学形式，使学生更加具有自己的艺术个性。
二、数字化时代美术教育的社会责任
1.倡导精英文化的建设
在社会主义精神文明建设中，一个重要的建设内容就是要提高广大人民的审美能力，这是社会发展的必然结果，也是社会发展的必然要求。在物质生活条件极大满足的今天，我们必须积极主动地发现生活之美，挖掘生活之美的精神文化内涵，而这些都需要艺术作为基础，因为在生活中，美是无处不在的，但又是难以发现的，如黄金分割、色彩的对比、色彩的情感等都是艺术在生活中的具体体现。因此，美术教育并不是单纯地培养优秀的美术人才，而要放眼整个社会，为社会审美能力的培养提供丰厚的土壤，使美术教育与数字化技术相结合。
2.构建艺术化的社会环境
培养美术人才、使美术理念深入人心、提高全民艺术修养是现代美术教育的主要目标。随着美术教育改革的不断进行与各种最新的数字化产品应用于美术教育，一些人迷失于先进的科技当中，忽略了艺术的本质。之所以出现这种思想，主要原因在于艺术和科技之间本身存在一道鸿沟，艺术具有高雅的属性，而科技从本质上来说是人类追求物质生活的一种体现，是属于世俗的，二者的结合固然使得美术教育出现了跨越式的发展，但是其固有的矛盾也使得美术教育的未来充满不确定性。这就要求当下的美术教育以学校专业教育为基础，以提高全民的艺术修养为目标，构建一个艺术化的社会环境，实现艺术与科技的共同发展。
3.适应数字化时代的生活
数字化时代的到来虽然给美术教育的发展带来了很多机遇，但是也给美术教育带来了很大的挑战，其中最大的挑战就是数字化时代带来的信息浪潮。海量的信息在给美术教育带来方便的同时，也使师生难以从中寻找有用的信息。对于这种情况，当下的美术教育者不能将目光局限于美术专业知识的传授，更要帮助学生主动学习新的知识，掌握科技的发展动向，只有这样才能够保证学生在毕业之后适应数字化时代的生活，才能保证学生能够深刻地领会和运用现代设计思想、设计手段和设计方法。
三、数字化时代的美术教育
1.充分认识数字化技术的优势
在过去，无论美术教育如何变革，画板、画笔和颜料都是必不可少的，无论是美术教师还是学生，在绘画的过程中都很容易受到外在环境的干扰，有时候辛苦了很长时间才能完成的一幅作品，受到一点外在因素的影响便毁于一旦，这并不仅仅是绘画作品的损失，更是美术教育的一次中断。而数字化时代的美术教育的最大特点就是以鼠标和屏幕取代了传统的画笔和画板，通过在电脑上进行绘画不仅不易造成画面的污损，还可以根据需要对绘画作品进行复制并进行大规模的传播，从而提高了绘画作品的艺术宣传效果，这也是数字化技术的最大优势。
2.借助数字化技术提高美术素养
提高美术素养是一个难度大、耗时长的过程。在美术教育期间内，学生不仅要学会相关的美术知识和美术技能，更要提高自身的美术素养，毫无疑问，这是一件较为困难的事情。无论是美术技能水平还是美术素养的提高，都需要经过长期的绘画实践，这就需要大量的时间，有时候一幅绘画作品需要十天半个月才能够完成，而在绘画的过程中，绘画所花费的时间可能还没有颜料调色等工作花费的多。借助数字化技术，学生就可以摆脱反复的绘画练习过程，将颜料调色等耗时费力的工作交给电脑完成，自己将更多的精力放在作品画面的构图与造型技巧的锻炼上，如此一来，学生的专业美术技能就会得到很好的强化。同时，由于数字化技术的不断发展，现在很多绘画软件不断完善，学生可以通过绘画软件完成许多大师的技巧，这可以使学生通过模仿绘画大师，从而提高其美术素养。
3.数字化教学与传统教学并重
[关键词]政治美学，儒家，秩序，儒表法里
一、绪论
对于政治审美化的研究，是当下学术界的一个重要课题，正如德国学者韦尔施所说：“美学丧失了作为一门特殊学科，专同艺术结盟的特征，而成为理解现实的一个更广泛、也更普遍的媒介。”这导致审美思维在今天变得举足轻重起来，美学这门学科的结构，随之等待改变，以使它成为超越传统美学，将“美学”的方方面面全部囊括进来。美学对人类其他生活领域的关注不仅是现代美学学科自身发展的必然走向，也是美学实践品格得以完满实现的重要途径。
本文通过文献法，分析法等研究方法，期望通过对“政治美学”概念的多元化的阐述使大众更加能认知“政治美学”这个概念；期望通过对“政治美学”这种概念诞生前的历史追溯，发掘它所存在的社会基础与美学价值；期望通过“政治美学”美学结构分析的阐释，展示其历史存在中的价值体系；最后通过前面一系列的阐述找寻它存在的美学功能价值。达到使人们正视“政治美学”，认识到其积极的社会价值，从而促进它对现代社会的发展和作用，让人们认识到它存在的合理意义。
二、何为“政治美学”
政治美学，不是指政治化了的美学，而是对“政治本身所蕴涵的美学方面进行研究，探究政治意识形态、政治制度、政治权力运作、政治变迁等方面所包含的美学奥秘”。1政治美学概念的提出并非心血来潮，政治与美学的联姻自古而然。
政治本身就是审美的一种特殊表现，政治意识形态、政治制度、权力运作、政治家的风格，所有都表现出美学的精神和其美学价值。意识形态对于现实与未来构建了种种“想象的共同体”，把特殊群体、阶级、集团的利益、情感与意志、观念净化与升华为人类的普遍理想与共通情感。政治统治的美学奥秘在于使权力成为魅力，权力结构进入情感结构。政治的等级结构深刻地表现为审美的一种价值结构。政治权力渗透着人的感性生存实践的各个方面，成为人们视、听、言、动的根据和规范；对权力的视觉分析可以推及到人的整个感性活动之中。
三、政治美学的历史追溯
3.1 社会阶级的意识形态
中国古代政治结构与意识形态结构受儒家思想影响甚深，从儒家政治思想入手，应该是研究古代政治思想史之首选。
从政即意味着“士”将自己所学到的伦理道德规范运用到政治领域，教化一方百姓。举凡研究古代政治思想史的著作或论文，在论及儒家政治思想时，也大都以“德治”视之。因此儒家政治思想被归之为伦理政治学。然而，如果仅仅局限于这种“伦理政治”的思维范式，儒家政治思想的研究便很难有新的突破。众所周知，在国家的治理与政治运作上，与名家、法家过于硬性的制度、法律规范相比，儒家则显得柔和得多。不管我们对中国历代社会政治的共同特征“儒表法里”做怎样的评价，儒家与法家截然不同的政治理念却是显而易见的。儒家的政治伦理是一种由夫妇到父母，到君臣，继而参赞乎天地宇宙的政治文化设想。在以血缘为基础的家国同构思想的政治架构下，渗入以礼乐文化的政治运作。这种政治伦理建构不仅取决于中国古代的农耕文化，实际上也体现了由内而外、由亲而疏、由己及人的情感表达，最终展现出来的是超伦理而入审美的天地境界。这也是天人合一的和谐之境，是“和合文化”在儒家政治思想中的最高体现。
四、儒家政治美学结构分析
4.1 仁：儒家政治意识形态的美学特征
在政治形象工程的设计中，意识形态的构建应是首当其冲的。所谓“得人心者得天下”，意识形态即是一种“人心工程”。意识形态乃至政治的重要因素，任何政治学说体系都有其所依赖的意识形态。正是意识形态的不同，决定了不同政治学说的性质。儒家政治学说的意识形态，我们认为就是“仁”的思想，所以，儒家的政治思想通常又被成为“仁政”。“仁政”作为术语是由孟子第一次提出的，这是对孔子“仁”的思想的一次在政治领域内的推进与提升。
五、政治美学的功能
5.1 政治美学的秩序感
正如中外思想家所共同认识到的，政治产生于人类生活的缺陷，也可以说是产生于人性的缺陷。在中西方的古代著作广泛论述中，往往认为政治产生于“恶”之中，是“恶之花”。
儒家政治与美的任务就是给人类建构这种良好的秩序。儒家政治与美学，就是参照同一事物的不同角度，或者说描述相同事情的不同话语和方法；由于参照、描述的角度和方法的不同，它们所掌握的内容当然也不同。儒家正是体现人的感性生存的一切方面，都与具体而微的形形的权力分不开，它制约着、规范着、熔铸了人的感性结构，把权力统治深入到人的神经末梢。
5.2 政治美学对现代的启迪
儒家思想自产生之日起就颇受瞩目，其侧重社会取向的价值观，富有伦理特色的政治观，追求自我完善的道德观，在中国封建时代长期成为官方的统治思想。儒家思想，在世界观方面，它是理性的；在人生目的方面，它是功利的；在处理人际关系的态度方面，它是和谐的。凡此都与现代社会的观念有着相似或相通的地方。所以说，在市场经济的今天，儒家思想依然有其正面的价值和积极的影响。可以说，儒家思想是构建社会主义市场经济伦理不可或缺的重要思想资源，挖掘它的积极面，对市场经济有着建设性作用，对现代管理也具有重要的借鉴意义。
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