时间：2023-03-16 15:41:59
导语：在英语口语教学论文的撰写旅程中，学习并吸收他人佳作的精髓是一条宝贵的路径，好期刊汇集了九篇优秀范文，愿这些内容能够启发您的创作灵感，引领您探索更多的创作可能。
传统的任课教师对学生的评价只是期末考试卷面分数。后来改良为期末考成绩与平时成绩各占一定比例。平时成绩没有太多的根据,往往是教师对学生的一个学期的总体印象而给出的分数。有的学生心里不服,却只能接受。长期采用这种评价方式和方法,会出现以下不利于学生成长的后果。
1.平时懒洋洋
学生平时上课无所谓,玩手机、睡觉、讲话,不做作业。觉得自己底子薄,努力也没有用,自暴自弃。
2.期末抱佛脚
学生为了期末考,不惜加夜班,点蜡烛,开手电筒,眼睛红了,身体也熬坏了。
3.考试忙舞弊
期末考试采取偷看、夹带、抄袭等舞弊手段,不正常地提高考试成绩。任课教师虽然知道成绩水分多,有时因为无凭无据,也无可奈何,损伤了好学生的学习积极性。
那么对学生的评价要怎么改,才能公平、公正对待每个学生,又能找回学生的自信呢?我想到了新措施——让学生“赚”分数。“赚”的过程中,学生体验成就感和自豪感,学习积极性被调动起来,尤其是对没有太多自信的中职生,给他们打一针强心剂。记得我第一次提到“赚”这个字眼,学生非常兴奋和好奇,趁热打铁,我宣布了“赚”的方法。满分是100分,分配到单元测试和课堂表现。其中单元测试40 分,每个单元学完后,都在我这里面试,采用抽中文签,做英语对话的形式,当面点评,当场给分;另外课堂表现60 分,分配到每次课为2 分,学生每一次主动参与课堂活动得一个星号,赚0.5 分,可以累计。若无人举手,我会随意点将,不加星号,不得分。
听完我的评价方法后,大多数学生沉默了,我的心也凉了一截。后了解到他们初中没有口语课,学的是哑巴英语,张不开嘴。我提问时,有几个胆子大的学生举手了,“星星之火可以燎原”,我马上做出积极反应,不管学生说得对错,我都及时加星号,而且隔一段时间就宣布每个学生的得分情况。有的学生告诉我看到同学赚分数,心理痒痒的,很羡慕。课堂上,我看出了没有举手学生的渴望,我又重申了如果课堂上不赚分数,期末成绩可能不及格。课后我帮他们找出害羞的原因,并且提出建议,鼓励他们积极参与。自己不敢举手,又想赚分数,怎么办?办法总比问题多。出乎我的意料,他们告诉同桌他们的愿望,同桌就会帮他们把手举起来,如果我没有注意到,同桌会直接告诉我。万事开头难,几次发言后,害羞的学生胆子越来越大了,只要我给机会,他们就齐刷刷举手,很自然地说英语,甚至是上台表演。学生自信心完全树立起来了,没有给他们机会,他们还不高兴,无奈的时候,我先给发言少的学生机会,争取让每个学生在我这儿得到公平的对待。
由于每一分都是学生辛苦所得,他们特别在意和珍惜。自发地监督我做好每一次记录,我一点儿也不敢马虎。看完了分数,学生特别开心,都会给我一个美滋滋的笑脸,几个分数差不多的学生会暗暗较劲。我再也不用担心他们不开口说英语了。
学生不用期末考,减少了期末压力,分散到每一次单元考,更注重平时的努力。
学生在赚分数的过程中,体验到了乐趣。学生赚的每一分都是透明的,学生看得见,心理很踏实。每一节课都能感受到教师的肯定和鼓励,通过参与活动,检验了学生对知识的掌握程度,教师可以及时查漏补缺。学生发现自己的弱点,并很快被纠正,此时的记忆是最深刻的。
学生是教学中的主体。在教师的引导下，让学生积极参与到教学中，主动思考并解决问题是教学目的之所在。任务型教学，指的是发挥学生的能动性，通过使用所掌握的英语口语能力来完成学习任务，从而将学生的注意力转移到语言的意义而非形式上，在潜移默化中提高学生的口语交际能力。任务型教学能够最大程度地使每个学生都参与到完成任务的活动中来，大大调动了学生的参与性，对学生英语口语的锻炼具有重要意义。例如，在学习介绍自己的家庭成员这一单元时，课前可以要求学生动手画一幅全家福。课堂期间，通过小组讨论的形式演练如何运用学到的表达方法来向其他人介绍自己的家庭成员。小组完成任务后，教师可以将全家福收集起来，放进盒中，由某个学生上台抽出一张全家福用课本中的句式来询问该全家福的一些基本问题，学生的口语能力便在任务训练中得到锻炼。
二、创新教学方法，开拓学习渠道
传统中学口语教学的方式是跟着老师朗读后再一遍遍自己练习，虽然这种方法在一定程度上能提高学生的口语水平，但却收效甚微，其原因在于重复练习的枯燥性和个人练习缺少正确口语的对照。因此，对教学方式做出适当创新是必要和必然的。全面综合运用各种教学手段可以使英语口语学习变得生动形象，开拓新的学习渠道又能使学生保持新鲜的学习劲头，这对提升口语水平有很大助力。例如，在传统模仿原文磁带的基础上，可以根据学生的口语水平高低来选择模仿新的内容，如脱口秀、演讲、新闻等。除此以外，教师可以在空余时间推荐并播放经典电影，让学生切身体会英语国家的人是如何用英语表达思想和感情的，并注意他们的语音、语调等，以便学生对地道的英语有一个大致印象。另外，学习模仿电影中的台词并尝试扮演其中的角色也是一项重要手段，使学生在表演中练习口语。
三、重视口语基础，强调语音语调
当前中学英语对语音、语调这类口语基础并不是特别关注。而学好英语口语，就必须拥有正确、标准的发音能力。学习英语发音离不开对音标的研究，只有熟悉了解音标的各项规则后，才算迈出口语学习的第一步。如果发音脱离音标的指导，那么再流利的口语也达不到自由交流的目的。学会正确发音后，如何把握语句情感变化、熟练使用语调又是一项难题，自然的语调能为口语增色不少，相反毫无语调变化、平平淡淡的口语会令听者感到别扭。故中学英语口语学习中要强调语音语调，打下扎实的英语口语基础。例如，在每学期开始，对学生国际音标掌握情况做出调查或测试，了解学生的口语基础，并利用一节课来复习强化音标，对发音难度较大、易混淆的音详细讲解，为本学期的口语练习做准备。课后，可以通过组建互助小组的方式互相矫正口语发音中的误区，互相监督发音练习。另外，在平时课堂发言、朗读中，教师要注意学生的语调，要求学生根据语义情感变化有节奏地进行口语交流。
四、鼓励积极发言，话题“有话可说”
在课堂上鼓励发言，用英语主动表达自己的想法，一直是英语课注重的部分。这个过程一方面可以增强学生的表达能力和沟通能力，提高学生使用英语口语的熟练度，另一方面能增强学生的自信心，并让教师及时发现、指出其口语中存在的问题，帮助促进其改正。而鼓励学生踊跃发言的一个前提，就是让他们“有话可说”，这关键在于选择的话题是否贴近中学生的生活，与学生生活息息相关的话题才会使他们有发言的冲动和交流思想的兴趣。例如，兴趣爱好、明星、电视剧、流行歌曲等一般是中学生关注的话题，用话题引起学生兴趣后，可采取小组比赛、个人加分等形式鼓励学生积极发言，使他们在表达中建立说口语的自信，逐渐提高口语能力。
五、结束语
关键词：口语训练大学英语教学语用功能教学模式改革文化背景
一、大学英语教学的现状及趋势：
1987年全国实行大学英语四、六级考试已有十五年之久了。一直以来这项考试制度备受学生、教师、教育机构甚至是用人单位的关注，其地位在逐年提高。尤其是近几年，无论是在实际教学中还是在现实生活中这项考试都充当了指挥棒的角色，社会对英语的重视逐渐通过英语等级考试体现出来了。在这种影响之下，教学不得不走入一个怪圈，即过分强调笔试能力和应试技巧，而忽略了实际语言能力即语言交际能力这一最基本的方面，这就形成了一个非常奇怪的现象——即使是通过四、六级的学生，也很难将已掌握的语言知识运用于实际的口语交际中。四、六级成绩所反映出来的英语水平在某种程度上并不能反映学生的整体语言能力的强弱，更不能作为衡量非英语专业学生英语水平的唯一尺度。
事实上，全国高校英语教学的纲领《大学英语教学大纲》也明确指出：“大学英语教学的目的是培养学生的阅读能力和听、说、读、写、译能力，使他们能用英语交流信息”。可见，语言交际能力是衡量语言掌握程度的重要标准。在当今日趋国际化的社会里，尤其是在中国成功加入WTO之后，口语交际愈来愈受重视，大学生口语交际能力的培养与提高已成为大学外语教学的一个不容忽视的方面。
二、语用能力和口语训练：
1、语用能力的培养：
Bachman认为语言能力包括语言知识和运用语言知识的能力（策略能力或语言认知策略）。人们在特定情形下的语言表达有其特定的意义。就语言表达这一语篇而言，其意义不仅仅在于语言形式，而且在于语言及其所在的环境或者称之为语境。同样的语言形式在不同的语境中会含有不同的意义，要进行有效交际，就要求语言的学习者不仅仅具备一定的语言知识，而且要具备在不同场合不同语境下，恰当得体地运用语言的能力。
Canale和Swain（1980）把交际能力概括为：语法能力、社会语言能力、话语能力和策略能力。语法能力相当于Chomsky的“语言能力”（LinguisticCompetence），后几部分被称为语用能力(PragmaticCompetence);实际上是听话人对语境的认识，及在此基础上理解他人意思和意图，准确表达自己的意思和意图的能力。笔者曾就语用能力方面，在新生入学时对自己所带的班级的新生进行过简单测试，经过至少6年的英语学习后，仍有三分之一的学生接电话时做出“Whoareyou?”或“Areyou?”的提问；约一半的学生，不能对正式场合及非正式场合进行判断，不同场合与他人打招呼时不知如何区分“Hello”，“Hi”，“Howareyou?”，“Howdoyoudo?”等，这都反映了我们长期以来只注重语言本身的教学，而忽视文化导入，学生对英语国家的文化、价值观缺乏了解，导致语言运用出错的问题。语言运用错误事实上是一种“文化错误”。“文化错误”比语言错误更严重，因为它将引起外国人与中国人感情上的不愉快。（胡文仲，1997）。外语教学中，教师应该有意识地灌输英语国家的文化背景知识，提高学生对汉英语言文化差异造成的不同语言习惯和特点的认识。
2、教学模式改革
除了文化背景等知识的灌输之外，教师还应改革教学模式，创造以学生为主的教学模式。口语教学中一个常用的模式就是“教师提问，学生回答”。提问不是目的，而是启发学生思维的一种手段，提出问题后应给学生一定时间去思考、准备和讨论。除此之外，还可以采用“学生提问，学生回答”的方式。这样更能激发学生的积极性、主动性和创造性，而且这种方法可以与多种教学相结合。笔者曾经在一次精读课上采用这种方法，提前布置学生，分配任务，一组准备文章的一个部分，让学生自由选择授课方式，或讲解或role-playing。事实证明，学生的认真参与使他们至今对那次课的内容记忆犹新。新的教学方式既有助于学生内化所学的知识，又能促进学生运用已有的知识进行交际，将知识的输入和输出有效地结合起来。
3、听与说有机结合
口语不是单纯地说，而是包含听和说两个方面。从心理语言学的角度看，口语中听和说是两个过程，但二者在口语中都是紧密相连，不可分割的。因此，要想提高口语水平，一定得注意听说结合，让学生有较多的机会开口说话，说的过程中结合听，听的过程中融入说。
美国语言学家Krashen提出语言习得中的“沉默期”（silentperiod）说明了听在说中所起的重要作用。在Krashen的i+1理论中，这种输入必须是理解的（comprehensible）、大量的（sufficientquantity）。语言的语感只有通过大量的语言输入才能逐渐得到培养；只有多听，才能增强语言的敏感性，提高语言的理解性。听力材料不过是他人的口语的书面材料，通过多听就能熟悉口语的常规表达方式，形成较地道的口语表达。
输入与输出的结合要求多听的同时还须多说。长期以来，学生在学习了大量语言知识之后，最大的输出就是做题目，而真正的输出是指语言运用，它既包含语法词汇的运用，也包含对这些知识的技能方面的操练及口语练习。当学生越来越多地生成外语时，他们的口语表达也对其他同学形成了自然的，可理解的输入。笔者在听力授课时常常采用的方法就是让即兴学生复述或进行role-playing或讨论听力材料涉及的内容，以增强学生语言运用频率，这对掌握语言大有裨益。
4、语言知识的记忆
口语的训练及提高离不开记忆，只有在熟记了一定的语法规则及一些固定用法之后，才能达到顺利表达的目的。口语与书面语毕竟还是不太一样。教学中应将学生口语中常用的短语和书面语中常用的短语按照同义词和反义词等范畴进行归纳总结。除此之外，还要注意语境的使用及其在委婉程度等方面的差异。比如让学生弄清“He’snotalive.”，“Heisdead.”，“Hehaspassedaway.”，“Hehaskickedthebucket.”等的区别。
口语的训练必须讲究科学的方法，教师可以通过各种渠道，帮助学生获取语言信息，并将其运用于口语练习中。Cook和Ellis认为语言信息主要有两种——“公式化表达”(formulaicexpression)和“熟悉语篇”(intimatediscourse),这些语言信息是学习者创造性地运用语言的基础。“公式化表达法”指的是一些固定的词组、句型或是运用于特定场合的语言片段，如会话套语(conversationalroutine)，礼貌公式语(politenessformula)等（高海虹，2000）。许多时候，有些片段并不能通过规则很好地描述，比如说，通常我们说somebodyelse,someoneelse,something?else，但是不说sometimeelse。这些句子段式就被称为“语块”（吴潜龙，2000）。它们是某些句子中的较紧凑的一个单位，其用法也是约定俗成的。以英语为母语的人能够掌握数十万“语块”，而第二语言的学生要达到母语般的熟练程度，就必须掌握大量的此类结构，只有熟记了这些结构，才能流利地表达自己。因此，口语的提高必须依靠这些“语块”的作用。
5、对教师的要求
英语教学中的口语交流不仅仅发生在学习者之间，还也发生在学生与老师之间的，而后者是最有效的教与学的途径（张红玲，2000）。教师自身的口语水平很高，声音清晰，表达流畅，能准确传递信息，进行交际。这对学生本身就是极好的示范模本。每一堂课就是一个真实的语言交际场所，这个场所能最大限度地为学生提供
语言使用的语境，提高他们的兴趣和热情。历来人与人之间的自然语言是最具亲和力的，师生之间的交流在外语教学这个语言环境下，本身也是一个语言学习的过程，而且通过这种交流，老师能够及时发现并指出学生的表达缺陷和交际技能方面的缺点。同时自身口语流利地道的老师也能对学生起到潜移默化的作用。学生通过日常接触，模仿老师的表达，能够使自己的语言运用和口语表达得到巩固和强化。
教师在课堂式语言学习过程应多组织学生开展形式、内容丰富的语言交际活动，以使学习者通过这种互动状态形成意义共建及交互修正（interactional?modification），大大增进语言习得（庞继贤，吴薇薇，2000）。教师授课过程中如能通过适当引用国内外的最新材料作为口语交际材料，既能激发学生学习语言的兴趣，又能促进学生了解不同的文化背景。兴趣是最好的老师，通过端正学生的学习动机，培养学生正确的学习态度和学习策略，不但对其在校期间的学习有益，而且会使其受益终身。
在大学英语教学中注重口语训练的开展，除了能给学生提供较多的语言使用环境，有利于巩固所学之外，还能提高他们的交际能力，从而提高其综合素质。口语训练环境的提供，能缓解学生的焦虑感，促进学生对学习语言的兴趣的培养，发挥其积极主动性。总的来说非英语专业的学生口语水平普遍不高，老师对全班的授课往往使很多学生感到紧张，有压力，长久下来，就会形成一种负担，影响学习进度。宽松、自然的口语交流能使他们放松，也能增加他们的兴趣，而且，经常性的口语交流能暴露出学生学习上的一些问题，有利于老师对症下药。
除了营造课堂小环境（毕竟时间短，昙花一现），教师还应在课外为学生营造良好的英语氛围，如多媒体教学、英语角、英语广播等。当学生的语言能有效地运用于实际时，心理上的满足必将转化为巨大的学习动力，促使他们积极投入进一步的学习之中。
1.英语口语教学的本质。在学习英语口语教学的本质前，我们应该知道最直接的英语口语教学的方式就是为了帮助学生学习如何与外国人交流。语言能力和交际能力二者是不可分的。由于交际法在英语教学中的影响，交际法对于学生来讲远远好于老师在课堂上的更多讲解。对于口语教学有三个主要的方面，学习者需要知道的，和老师要找到如何帮助影响学生的方法：口语交流是在实时条件限制下进行的。口语从根本上是一个互动的任务。口语比书面形式更能从根本上联系到说话的人。
2.大学口语教学的意义。众所周知，学习英语有四项基本的技巧听、说、读、写。当我们学习一门语言的时候，我们的目标就是为了用语言解释我们的思想和与人们交流。换言之，口语能力对于每个英语学习者都是非常重要的，与此同时，说更能提升其他三个技能。因此，如何教好口语是十分必要的。但是我们目前的口语教学现状不容乐观，让我们来分析下具体的原因。
3.学生口语差的原因。许多老师不懂得在口语教学中自己应该充当的角色，也不懂得如何提供一个自然的口语环境。一些教师只把重点放在了精准度和流利程度上，这导致了学生更加担心自己出现问题。大多数的中国学生都比较保守。她们表现自己时大多数都比较紧张和害羞，而且教学环境也比较紧张，所以导致学生不愿意参与到口语交流当中。
二、英语口语课堂管理
1.课堂管理的定义。对于老师和学生来说课堂管理是一项技能。能够组织学生的天赋在一个更好的学习环境中进行学习。
2.影响英语口语课堂教学的主要因素。课堂管理由四个主要部分组成：老师，学生，教学环境、教材和教具。我们来讨论下这四个方面是如何影响课堂管理的。
(1)老师的角色
1)老师要有一个适当的口语教学方法。老师要知道英语口语教学是一种实践而不是教学的方法。
2)在目前的英语口语课中大部分学生已经适应了传统的被动的角色来学习英语。老师有必要把它们变成主动的参与者，让她们在课堂上参与到行动中来。
3)在英语口语课堂中教师的角色是多变的。作为一名老师应该让学生知道她们将做什么应该做什么，什么才是自己的目标活动。老师的角色是一个组织者，组织不同的课堂活动，让同学们积极的参与到活动中来。老师也是一个参与者，参与到同学们的活动中，让他们更加自然的展现最真实的自己。
(2)学生的角色
1)学生应积极的参加到课堂活动中并建立起自信。另一方面，她们应该清楚学习英语的最终目的不是为了得到一个高分，而是要把英语当作一个交流的工具。
2)学生应该时刻记住她们才是课堂的中心。学生不仅仅是听老师说和记笔记，而应该积极的参与到课堂活动中，成为演讲，小组活动的主要角色。
(3)课堂环境
如果老师坐在同学的旁边，学生就会把老师当作其中的一员。老师就会更容易的参与到学生的活动中，就像她们的朋友一样能给予她们帮助。毫无疑问学生的活动积极性就会大大提升。这是师生间很好的交流方式之一。这也是老师更容易管理学生的好方法。
(4)教材和教具
1)我们来了解一下口语教材。我们有许多有关于阅读、写作、听力的书籍，但是口语书却很少。教师必须通过互联网去下载有关口语方面的教材。所以在教材的选择上有了很大的困难。合适的教材可以鼓励学生的学习动机，增加他们的自信，因此提高他们的口语水平。这样学生才会放松的融入到口语学习中。
2)教具能够使口语课堂更加成功。如今的多媒体教学，例如电视、录像机、电脑。作为老师，不仅要知道如何使用教具，更要懂得教学方法。
三、总结
1.局限性。前面我所说的一些教学方法并不适合每一个学生，因为每个学生存在个体的差异性。所以当你学习的时候一定要找到适合自己的学习方式。
2.意义。学习英语主要有四个技能听、说、读、写。我们学习一门语言时，我们的目的是用他来与他人沟通。换句话说，英语口语对于每一个学习英语的人来说都是十分重要的。同时，口语好也能提高其他三个方面的能力。因此，教好口语是很必要的。
回顾自己的教学实践，又认真观摩了多节新教材的研讨课，笔者发现当前口语课教学中存在以下两个主要问题：
问题一：虽然使用了新教材，但仍承袭旧教材的教学方法。教师在口语课上还是以自己表述为主导，学生在课堂中只是被动的跟着教师走，按照任务完成学习。
问题二：学生在课堂中只是“热热闹闹”的完成老师提出的“任务话题”，但在其谈论的过程中漫无边际，无法和教材内容相融合，达到真正运用语言的能力。
在新课程标准所提倡的教学理念中，教师如何有效的设计“口语课”并加强学生其他语言能力的培养？如何在课堂中既点燃学生的“兴奋点”又能兼顾教学过程中的听说策略呢？
创设语言环境，营造良好的交际氛围。新的课程理念提倡从用的角度出发进行英语口语学习。要使学生能根据交际的话题、场合、人际关系等相关因素得体地运用语言。教材中，每节课都有生活背景，教师可以引导学生进行对话、演讲、课本剧表演、辩论等，通过pairwork和roleplay展示出来。另一方面，教师还可以根据课文的特点来设计一些不同的口语课活动形式。如Dialogue、Competition、Talking、Debate、Discussion等环节，提高学生英语运用能力，充分调动他们学习英语的热情，激发学生的“兴奋点”。
善于采用教学策略，激活学生学习潜能。SEFC教材不同的项目设置和不同的项目要求教师采用不同的教学策略，对于英语口语教学，多元的教学策略不仅可以激发学生的学习兴趣和学习潜能，而且有利于促进学生的心智发展。
第一，教师可设计具体的日常口语会话情景，训练学生日常口语会话能力。
学生要熟练掌握日常口语会话，就必须掌握范围广阔的、基本得当的日常用语，以服务于交际目的。如怎样表示想与陌生人交谈；怎样表示喜爱与厌恶，赞同与异议；怎样问路与指路；怎样发出与接受邀请；怎样处理电话；怎样抱怨与安慰别人；如何购物、求医、求学，节假日或旅游时的交际范围有哪些等等。这些问题看似简单，但由于中西文化及语言的差异，好多学生不知如何应付这些问题。在基础会话单元教学过程，笔者针对这一情况首先通过中西方语言差异比较，将学生感到困难的关键句列在黑板上，然后将学生分组，自己设计情景，组织会话，并进行反复实践，使学生对自己使用不当的和欠得体的语言进行加工并逐步加深印象。
第二，通过对日常生活题材讨论，逐步提高学生语言的组织能力。
SEFC教材提供了涉及邻里关系、购物、运动与健康、家庭生活、看病、抽烟与疾病、教育与发展等等日常生活话题。题材的讨论是训练学生口语能力一个重要阶段，在这个阶段中，通过组织多种形式课堂和课外的讨论活动，适时引导学生广泛地对日常生活中的各类题材相互间进行会话，既增强了学生学习兴趣、逐步提高了学生对语言的驾驭能力，又活跃学生的思维、扩大了知识面。同时，教师还可以自己创设情境话题，让学生组织讨论。例如：“Talkabouttheholiday”
(1)Telltheclassaboutyourholiday.Didyougohomeortravel?Whatdidyoudowithyourfamilyeachdayorwheredidyoudo/whodidyousee/visit?
(2)DiscussthecustomsoftheSpringFestival.WhatdopeopledotopreparefortheNewYear/SpringFestival?Aretheresomeinterestingactivitiesthatyoudoinyourfamilyorhometowntocelebrate?
(3)Whatisthebestplaceyouhaveevertraveledto?Whydidyoulikethatplaceandwhatmadeitspecial?
在讨论这样的题材时，可以每组负责讨论一个问题，然后面向全班阐述自己的观点；有时是各小组将各自讨论的结果作对比，分析总结异同，学生即兴发言，最后教师进行总结。在讨论某一问题时，要求每个发言者不能只顾自说自己的，而要针对前一个人的发言做出评论，提出自己的观点，阐述自己的看法。
第三，通过对热点话题辩论，提高学生口语的思辨能力。
提高学生口语的思辨能力是口语教学的最高阶段，这一阶段的主要目的是培养学生作长篇论述的能力。目前，大多数中国学生需要口语输出时，讲的多是零星片语，而形不成有序的逻辑主体，其主要原因是缺乏联想与想象这方面的训练，不知道应从多角度多层面进行剖析。针对这一现象，笔者在教学中通过循序渐进的形式积极引导学生对每一个会话题材进行横向和纵向的分析。如在“Thesilverscreen”一课时，组织学生讨论：“copyright”
做任何事情，都需要动力，不管是直接的，还是间接的。但是对于初中生而言，教师要想方设法使口语交际成为其学习的原动力。升入初中，学生的英语学习基本进入正轨，但受多种因素影响，特别是考试的主导作用，他们很少认可和强化口语训练。教师需要创设情境，有效激发学生。例如，不少学生喜欢NBA，可组织学生观看总决赛录相，看中国转播人员的英语采访，运用其体育喜好促进他们口语能力的提升。对经商有兴趣的同学，可组织他们观看马云在联合国的演讲，介绍马云在杭州为学口语而骑自行车带老外旅游的故事，借助励志人物激发学习口语的动力。教师还可用自己的例子教育学生，例如，一次到北京旅游，有老外请求帮他照相，笔者与其交流，之后一起旅游。通过这些导引活动，学生学习口语的动力形成，但要使其从外在感召力变成原动力，还需耐心引导学生开展实际操练。这当中，也需要注意一些策略。一要让学生看到自己的潜力，通过短期训练有进步；二要让学生看清自己的实力，经过多年的学习他们还是具备一定口语交际基础的，而且初中阶段又是能力提升的关键期；三要帮助他们建立学习、提升计划，平时多提醒、多帮助。在这个环节，开展的所有工作只有一个目的——激发学习主体的积极性和自觉性。
二、前进力生成——多彩的交际行为
仅仅有兴趣的激发，学习主体性作用发挥仅为可能，还需要不断提供动力，就像宇宙飞船的发射一样，在它进入预定轨道自行运转之前，需要火箭不断地为其提供助推力。为充分体现学生学习的自主性，教师可引导学生借助教科书、现代新传媒等载体，不断自学、消化、接受，然后展示交流。例如，某一学生提问全体同学：“听闻不幸之事，在英语中怎么作答？”不少学生回答：“I'msorrytohearthat.”也有一部分学生不知道，但经过这一问一答，他们也会掌握住这类表达方式。这时，提问的同学肯定了这种回答，然后追问还有什么回答方式。同学们默然，这时主问者的心理优势凸显，因为经过自学，他已经知道答案，他成了先行学习者和先行学习的受益者。他很自得地给出答案——Badluck！经过这个展示，展示者自身的学习意义突出，学习动力延续乃至加大；受教者对其充满敬仰乃至嫉妒之心，他们的自主学习必然因之获得无穷的牵引力。人人都要学了，自主性就得以体现，有效性就得以提高。传统教学更多侧重于学这个主体及行为，而无情地漠视了教的存在及其自身提升意义的体现。这是个现实的教学生态问题，没有教的主体存在价值就谈不上学的有效性。事实上，在口语交际这方面，许多英语教师也迫切需要再学习、再完善。聪明的教师会坦诚认可自身不足，提出与学生共进的目标。在此过程中，教师应该正视自身可能的出错行为，甚至有意设置出错点，让学生发现错误、纠正错误。这样做可以起到多个作用：给学生一个态度示范，人非完美，都需自我完善；给学生一个动力提升，人的心理很奇怪，要说别人的好与美，一般人不大愿意，但要是挑错，则大多数人极其愿意而且相当认真、细致。例如，在一次口语训练中，笔者与学生一起做一道题：对“Howareyoudoing?”的回答，进行选择。我有意给出了“I'mgood.”这个答案，立即引起了学生的否定，因为这是中国式的回答，答案应为“I'mfine.或I'mok”。通过这个故意为之的设错，学生破解了迷信老师的观念，认识到真理才是最正确的老师；同时，学生对口语交际的训练会更加自觉和主动，学生的主体性会得到持续性保障。
三、后续力生成——适时的交际评价
摘 要
近年来，随着我国改革开放的发展和我国与国际间的经济、科技、文化交流日益频繁，人们越来越重视外国文化问题。同时，我们也逐渐认识到了了解外国文化在对外交往中的重要性。在教育领域中，外语教学也渐渐重视对学生交际能力的培养。然而，对许多老师而言，文化教学还是一个较新的概念，从跨文化角度对英语教学进行研究探讨在目前还是个新领域。我们必须认识到交际能力的培养是外语教学的主要目标，培养学生跨文化交际的技能是中学外语教学要达到的一个目标。文化教学在中学英语教学中的重要性不可忽视，英语学习者不了解英语国家的文化，就无法获得交际能力。因此在中学英语口语教学中应该目标明确地，循序渐进地，方法得当地导入文化教学，使英语学习者在学习语言和知识的同时受到文化的熏陶，在跨文化交际中游刃有余。
关键词： 跨文化交际；文化教学；中学英语口语教学
ABSTRACT
Since last century, because of reforming and opening policy, many people, especially young people go abroad to get a better job or get further education and so on. Besides, many foreigners are curious about our country. Consequently, people come to realize that if we know little about cross-cultural communication, there will be many conflicts. Some experts suggest that today’s English teaching should emphasize intercultural communication. Learners ought to know not only grammar or words, but should learn cultural knowledge. If not, they will meet many difficulties while they communicate with foreigners. Therefore, it is important to introduce this kind of knowledge while teaching. We can’t neglect the importance of culture teaching in middle school foreign language teaching, English teachers should integrate culture into ELF teaching gradually and appropriately. Thus the students may have a better understanding of the target language, and they may communicate freely and effectively in cross-culture communication.
Keywords：Cross-cultural communication; Cultural teaching; middle school ELF oral teaching
Contents
1. Introduction 2
2. the concept of intercultural communication 3
2.1 Literature review 3
2.2 Definition of intercultural communication 4
3.A survey based on classroom observations 7
3.1 The analysis of interviews 7
3.2 The analysis of a questionnaire 7
3.2.1 Data analysis on the questionnaire (1) 9
3.2.2 Data analysis on the questionnaire (2) 10
3.2.3 Data analysis on culture curriculum 12
4. Ways of improving cross-cultural communication competence in middle school oral teaching 15
4.1 The necessity of develop cross-cultural communication competence 17
4.2 Some strategies for improving cross-cultural communication competence in the ELF oral learning in chinese middle school 17
4.2.1 Some strategies to learners 17
4.2.2 Some strategies to teachers 19
5. Conclusion 25
Acknowledgements 26
References 27
AppendixⅠ 28
1． Introduction
Language is just like a mirror that reflects its national culture. Sociologists and anthropologists believe that culture comprises all products of human activity, including fields of literature, art, music, architecture, and scientific as well as aspects of customs, life-style, code of conduct, worldly wisdom and social organization, etc. Languages are generally accepted words and rules drawn from speech. Language is the carrier of culture and culture is the content of language20.
Worldwide interest in intercultural communication grows out of two assumptions. First, we live in an age when changes in technology, travel, economy, and political systems, immigration patterns, especially the emergence of Internet, have created a world in which we increasingly interact with people from different cultures. And whether we like it or not, these interactions will continue to grow in both frequently and intensely. Second, people now know that the influence of culture affects communication in a subtle way. Our culture perceptions and experiences help determine how the world looks and how we interact in the world.
However, as we look back to see the situation in China’s high schools. We see that, for several decades, language teachers have not been able to pay attention to the role of culture knowledge in language oral teaching. Nowadays, in the ELF oral teaching, especially in middle school, teachers pay much attention to vocabulary.
As Chinese culture is not the same as that of English-speaking countries, the rules for using Chinese are, in some respects, different from those using English. There is especially good evidence that Chinese students may transfer their mother tongue references of language used to their English performance and fail to communicate effectively[1]24. Misunderstanding caused by cross-cultural communication should break down and much attention should be paid to them in English language t eaching.
So in middle school ELF oral teaching, teachers must not only improve students’ language level, but also pay attention to cultivating students’ abilities of intercultural communication.
2. The concept of intercultural communication
2.1 Literature review
More and more common practice of intercultural communication promotes the emergence of the concept of intercultural communicative competence. It is a challenging issue for language study and language teaching.
In 1965, Chomsky put forward the concept of linguistic competence and linguistic performance. Later, it was challenged by Campbell and Wales (1970) and Hymes (1972). Hymes (1972) argues that the appropriateness of language is the core of communicative competence, and he sees communicative competence as part of cultural competence. Canale and Swain (1980) put forward a more complex framework, and Canale (1983) summarized communicative competence in the way that it includes four component parts --- grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic. Canale’s conclusion in fact suggests that all aspects of language using are determined by culture. The continuous theoretical research of communicative competence has paved the way for the development of language teaching in which cultural factors are considered more and more important.
In 1975, the first textbook on intercultural communication “An Introduction to Intercultural Communication” (Conden & Yousef ) was published, and many other books followed it. The research on intercultural communication has developed quickly, and has exerted incredible influence on language and cultural teaching.
Traditional language teaching divides language techniques into listening, speaking, reading and writing. Deman (1987) applied the theories of intercultural communication to language and cultural teaching, and viewed cultural teaching as the fifth dimension of language teaching. Seelye published a book named “Teaching Culture: Strategies for Foreign Language Education” in 1984. Gumperz (1982) conducted investigations on the “discourse strategy” of the communicators who had a non-English cultural background and who spoke English as the second language. He revealed that those communicators’ assumptions of the world that had been formed in their native cultural context would exert great influence on intercultural communication. This, in turn, has stimulated a trend in language teaching that sees culture as discourse (Widdowson, 1984; Mclarthy, 1991; Kramsch, 1993; Candlin,1994; Hanks,1996). So since 1990, process-centered and task-oriented teaching mode has been widely adopted in the west.
Besides, American applied linguist G. Robinson (1985) put forward an important concept that through language and cultural teaching learners would gain “Cultural Versatility”. That is to say, through learning culture, learners would change internally. This viewpoint is quite significant.
Prof. Michael Bryam’s research is also strikingly notable. He holds that foreign language education includes four parts: language learning, language understanding, cultural understanding, and cultural experience.
2.2 Definition of intercultural communication
“Intercultural Communication” can hence be defined as the interpersonal interaction between members of different groups, which differ form each other in respect of the knowledge shared by their members and in respect of their linguistic forms of symbolic behavior. In this Concepts of intercultural and Combines the Concepts of intercultural and communication, It also describes the problems and pitfalls of misunderstanding and the skills and competence required for successfully understanding member of other culture.
Thanks to Edward T. Hall who is regarded as the founder of intercultural communication, a new brink knowledge, intercultural communication, has been becoming more and more widespread in the whole world ever since the publication of his great work The Silence Language. Intercultural communication is a symbolic, interpretive, transactional, contextual processing tool with which people from different cultures create shared meaning[2]115. Intercultural communication occurs whenever a message produced in one culture must be processed in another culture. It can best be understood as cultural variance in the perception of social objects and events. The barriers to communication caused by this perceptual variance can best be lowered by a knowledge and understanding of cultural factors that are subject to variance, coupled with an honest and sincere desire to communicate successfully across cultural boundaries.
Intercultural communication refers to communication between persons who have d ifferent cultural beliefs, values, or ways of behaving.
2.2.1 Cultural and cross-cultural communication
Cultural awareness in language learning is the ability to be aware of cultural relativity following reading, writing, listening and speaking. As Claire kramsch points out…[12]
If…language is seen as social practice, culture becomes the very core of language teaching, cultural awareness must then be viewed as enabling language proficiency…
Language itself is defined by culture. Language competent cannot be achieved without a good understanding of culture that shapes it, especially in foreign language learning. It is not only therefore essential to have cultural awareness, but also have cross-cultural communication awareness, such as the understanding of the relationship between target culture and native culture.
2.2.2 Culture teaching and ELF oral teaching in middle school
The interrelationship between culture teaching and language teaching has been explored in depth by Michael Byram. The basis of Byram’s position is that it views language as a cultural phenomenon, embodying the values and meanings particular to a specific society, referring to the traditions and artifacts of that society and signaling its people’s sense of themselves—their cultural identity: “to teach foreign culture is to introduce learners to new competences and to allow them to reflect upon their own culture and cultural competence[2].” It is assumed by others that language could somehow stand alone and be taught as a value-free symbolic system. But the social nature of language works oppositely when separating it from its original culture, especially when appearing in overseas contexts, where the learners’ contact with the culture is largely confined to the foreign language classroom.
Traditional foreign language teaching does not pay much attention to cultural factor. It focuses mainly on the vocabulary and structure of the language. But plenty of facts prove that language is not only a symbol, a system, which put forward by pure linguistic theory scholar, but also a social practice. Therefore successful foreign language teaching must help the student master the knowledge of culture rules, in addition to use them in particular situation. Every nation has its unique culture pattern and language is the carrier of culture. For instance, Asians emphasize the importance of orderly society whereas Americans emphasize the importance of personal freedom and individual rights. For effective and appropriate communication, learners in middle school must be familiar with the differences in the foreign culture which they are learning and take according language behaviors.
3. A survey based on classroom observations
Survey date: 25/02/2009
Survey instrument: interview and questionnaire.
Subjects: students of Ning Bo Chai Qiao middle school. 30 students are interviewed, 98 students (30 interviewed students and another 68 students) participate in questionnaire. All the 98 copies of questionnaire are valid.
The objective of this survey is to investigate:
1) Students’ attitudes towards cross-cultural communication in the ELF oral learning
2) Current situation of students’ information input.
3.1 The analysis of interviews
Thirty English learners are interviewed and are invited to answer only one question: what is a competent language learner like in your eyes? The responses tend to fall into three categories:
(1) Twenty five interviewees think that he or she is good at English listening, speaking, reading and writing abilities, especially at speaking and listening;
(2) Ten of them think he or she is familiar with foreign culture and is a successful cross-cultural communicator.
(3) Five of them think a good command of native language is necessary.
In order to describe more directly, the results of interviews are put into a table (Table.1).
Table1. Results of the Interview
Positive attitudes Percentage
Language proficiency learning(reading, writing, speaking and listening) 83.33％ (25/30)
Accumulation of culture 33.33％ (10/30)
Mother tongue proficiency 16.67％ ( 5/30)
These students’ responses reveal the following information:
Firstly, these students still see the four basic skills (speaking, listening, reading and writing) as their main study objective. Secondly, cross-cultural communication competence has already been realized by language learners, but this group is small compared to the whole. Thirdly, the importance of mother tongue competence has only been seen by a few interviewees.
According to this interview, most interviewees have realized the importance of language proficiency in language learning, but the point is why only one third of the interviewees have realized the importance and necessity of cross-cultural communicative competence since which are discussed so warmly in present language teachin g world? Do they hold a negative view on it or do they just have not yet obtained the awareness consciously?
3.2 The analysis of a questionnaire
The English learning questionnaire consists of nine closed-ended questions (see Appendix), For instance, “you have the interest and passion in English and language learning”, and the answers falls into four types:
1. Strongly Agree (SA) 2. Agree (A) 3. Disagree (D) 4. Strongly Disagree (SD)
According to the research content, the analysis of questionnaire is divided into two parts. The first five are put in Table 2 and the rest four questions are put in Table 4.
3.2.1 Data analysis on the questionnaire (1)
This part of analysis involves data analysis on questions 1-5 in the questionnaire and a comparison between the responds of the interviews and the questionnaire.
3.2.1.1 Data analysis on the questionnaire (1)
Table2. Results of Questions 1-5 in Questionnaire
SA A D SD
1) The cultivation of English skills(reading, writing, speaking and listening) is the foundation of the language learning 60.29％ 31.65％ 2.04％ 6.02％
2) Reading English novels everyday is necessary 17.35％ 69.39％ 13.26％ 0.00％
3) It is important to acquire a good knowledge of native language in the ELF oral learning 44.90％ 53.06％ 2.04％ 0.00％
4) The accumulation of language and cross-cultural communication competence are of equal importance 50.00％ 48.98％ 1.02％ 0.00％
5) It is necessary to read materials regularly about politics, economy, culture, and so on 39.80％ 60.20％ 0.00％ 0.00％
Questions 1-5 (see appendix) indicate a clear picture of students’ attitudes towards language proficiency learning, native language learning, and accumulation on cross-cultural communication competence, literature, and politics and so on. On the importance of the cultivation of reading, speaking, listening and writing in language learning, 91.94% (60.29% SA+31.65% A) of English majors agree and of which 64.29% strongly agree. On daily English novels reading, a total of 86.74% (17.35% SA+69.39% A) consider it necessary. On the necessity a good command of native language, 97.96% (44.90% SA+53.06% A) of English learners agree. On the relation of native language learning and foreign language learning, 98.98% (50.0% SA+48.98% A) believe that these two are of equal importance. Finally, on a regularly reading of politics, economy, and culture, all (39.80% SA+60.20% A) the students hold a supportive attitude.
3.2.1.2 Comparison between the interviews and the questionnaire
With regards to the similarities of the contents examined, it seems necessary to
have a comparison between the responds of the interviews and the questionnaire.
Table3. Comparison between the Interviews and the Questionnaire
Positive attitudes (SA+A) Interview
(open-ended) Questionnaire
(close-ended)
Foreign Language proficiency learning(reading, writing, speaking and listening) 83.88％ 91.94％
Accumulation of intercultural communication competence 33.33％ 98.98％
Mother tongue proficiency 16.67％ 97.96％
From the table above, the comparison is very clear that, towards the same research content, interviewees’ responds vary when they are faced with different types of questions. The gap is especially seen on the accumulation of cross-cultural communication competence and native language proficiency. Compared with open-ended question in the interview, interviewees tend to hold a more supportive view on closed-ended questions in the questionnaire. In other word, most English learners subjectively admit the importance of the accumulation of cross-cultural communication competence and native language proficiency, but the point is, not all of them have already obtained the awareness. However, two questions have been proposed from the comparison: (1) Why English learners have not obtained the cross-cultural awareness which should be tied up with the ELF oral learning? (2) Is that because they subjectively lack learning motivation or objectively, they lack timely and efficiently teachers’ cultural guidance?
3.2.2 Data analysis on the questionnaire (2)
This part of questionnaire (table4 in next page) mainly focuses on students’ attitudes towards learning motivation as well as classroom learning. Before the analysis is taken, a brief introduction on motivation can help to have a better understanding on the analysis.
1) Integrative motivation
Motivation has been identified as the learners’ orientation with regards to the goal of learning foreign language69. This form of motivation is known as integrative motivation.
.2) Instrumental Motivation
In contrast to integrative motivation is the form of motivation which is known as in strumental motivation. This is generally characterized by the desire to obtain something practical from the study of foreign language[9]125. With instrumental motivation, the purpose of study is more practical, such as meeting the requirements for college graduation, applying for a job and achieving higher social status.
Table4. Results of Questions 6-9 in Questionnaire
SA A D SD
6) Your have the interest and passion in the ELF oral learning 14.29％ 61.22％ 21.43％ 3.06％
7) You would prefer to get an English-related job after the graduation 21.43％ 66.33％ 11.22％ 1.02％
8) The present classroom teaching can cultivate your learning abilities and improve your cross-cultural skills 2.04％ 7.14％ 71.43％ 19.39％
9) You hope to have English class in various forms such as discussion, presentation, debate, performance and so on. 25.51％ 63.27％ 9.18％ 2.04％
As is shown in the table (results of questions 6 and 7), 75.51% (14.29%SA+61.22%A) of English learners have the interest and passion in language learning, and 87.76% (21.43%SA+66.33%A) of them would like to get an English related job in the future. According to the introduction of motivation, the answers to those two questions (questions 6 and 7) can be taken as the representation of integrative and instrumental motivation respectively. Therefore, a conclusion can be made that, most students subjectively want to make a living by using their language competence.
In order to check the condition of students’ cultural information input, questions 8 and 9 are designed and analyzed. 89.82% (71.43%D+19.39SD) of English learners do not think that the present classroom teaching can cultivate their learning abilities and improve their cross-cultural communication competence, whereas a total of 88.78% (25.51%SA+63.27%A) hope to have English class in various forms such as discussion, presentation, debate, performance and so on. It can be found that most English majors are not satisfied with the current classroom teaching. They hope to enjoy a more interactive and communicative teaching style. The traditional text-based grammatical and linguistic teaching could not meet the needs of the cultivation of communicative competence to some extent. What’s more important is that students are supposed to have a consciously as well as unconsciously cultural awareness promote by language teachers.
3.2.3 Data analysis on culture curriculum
It is shown from the result of question 8 in the table above (table 4) that present foreign language teaching has not provided a satisfactory fruit on cultural awareness cultivation. A question should be taken into consideration, that is, how can cross-culture awareness be expressed in the foreign language curriculum, with the purpose to cultivate language learners’ cultural awareness and communication insight into the target civilization? For a long time, this has been attempted by introducing the geographical environment and historical or political development of the foreign culture, its institutions and customs, its literary achievements, and even everyday life of its people. Take English learners in Ning Bo Chai Qiao middle school as an example, their cultural input has largely come from courses such as Extensive Reading, Communication between Cultures, American Literature, and An Outline Introduction to Britain and America, and so on. Following is a basic analysis on the four courses.
Table5. Courses Information
Course Duration Teacherˊs background
Extensive Reading first 4 terms Chinese
Communication between cultures the 7th term New Zealander
American literature the 7th term Chinese
An Outline Introduction to Britain and America the 7th term Canadian
Extensive Reading was taught by a Chinese teacher during the first four terms, and the teaching contents mainly focus on western culture, economy, politic, education and so on. After two years study, it helps students build up a general view on western civilization. Communication between Cultures is taught by a English-speaking teacher from New Zealand, the teaching content seems “boring and meaningless” said the majority of students, the teacher read the chapters from the book to the class instead of giving practical cross-cultural communication analysis. So for most students, they did not learn as much as they expected from this course. American literature was taught by a Chinese teacher, and the teaching contents include background information introduction and literacy reading. An Outline Introduction to Britain and America was taught by a Canadian teacher who has a good experience on both British and American cultures. In this course, students are introduced to a comparison of the British and American culture.
From what have been introduced above, it can be seen that although there are four courses and an 28-month course duration, most of what students have taken is an education of “cultural background knowledge” on Chinese or English rather t han practical cross-cultural communication stimulation such as comparisons or contradictions between the target and native culture. To some extent, it revels why most English students have not got a conscious awareness in cultural or cross-cultural communication competence.
Through comparisons between the interview and the questionnaire, it can be seen that students hold positive attitudes on develop the competence of intercultural communication, but for some reasons, not so many have already obtained conscious cross-cultural awareness. Through further analysis of curriculum on cultural teaching, it reveals that present cultural teaching in ELF oral teaching shows the weakness in practical, sufficient and conscious cultural input to help build up language learner’s cross-cultural awareness. Moreover, the current teaching is also expected to be more communicative and interactive. Thus, following on are the possible ways to promote the competence of intercultural communication,
4.1 The necessity of develop cross-cultural communication competence
Firstly, it is vital for language teachers to help language learners develop their cross-cultural communication competence. If the final purpose of intercultural communication competence cultivation is to help students to acquire cross-cultural communication competence, then what cross-cultural communication competence is? According to Kramsch’s opinion, cross-cultural awareness is not really a skill, but a collection of skills and attitudes known as a competence[12].
Secondly, it is necessary to make clear what cross-cultural awareness skills students are supposed to acquire. It has been suggested that cross-cultural awareness consists of having four different perspectives on communication with a different culture. Cross-cultural competent students should be able to:
----look at their own culture from the point of view of their own culture (for example, having a good understanding and awareness of their own culture)
----Be aware of how their culture is seen from outside, by other countries or cultures
----understand or see the target culture from its own perspective (for example, understanding and being aware of what other people think of their own culture)
----Be aware of how they see the target culture
4.1.1 The request of the development of Internationalization
Lin Dajin in the “cross-cultural communication study, ” pointed out that culture can be defined as “ the integrated feature that a nation is distinct from another nation. ” Cultural differences are the barriers of cross-cultural communication. The modernization process accelerated the circulation of spiritual and material products, and brought all nationalities into a common “global village”, cross-cultural communication became an integral part of national life. If people do not understand the cultural convention in the USA or Britain, and use the way of China to treat foreigners, then it will create a lot of jokes, and even hurt each other's feelings, self-esteem and cause misunderstanding. Thus, to overcome the cultural differences caused by communication barriers has become a common problem faced by the entire world.
4.1.2 It is imperative to understand the cultural background knowledge
Understanding cultural knowledge is the key to language learning. “One can not really learn the language, and teach language well unless one knows the patterns and norms of culture and cultural background[14]224. ” Without a specific cultural background, language is non-existent. If we don’t know the culture of target language, we would find it is difficult to understand the meaning of certain words. For example, “Thanksgiving”, “Sandwich” has been brought about in a specific social and historical circumstance, it is not enough merely to know the meaning of the surface of these words. Another example is: “You are, indeed, a lucky dog”, the literal translation is “you are a lucky dog. ” This is a satiric sentence in China, because, in Chinese views, “dog” is an expression when people used to refer generally to dislike someone. While in English, it can mean, “You are a lucky man. ” In Western society, “dog” is a family member, and they are harmonious coexisting with people “Dog” here refers to people instead of satirizing others, but a very intimate expression.
4.1.3 Cultural knowledge teaching is the objective of language teaching
The main objective of language teaching is to train and develop students’ interpersonal skills. And cultural knowledge teaching can increase the ability of cross-cultural communication, which is the important content to achieve goals of language teaching. For example, in American society, praise and compliments language that flatter mainly a personal appearance, new things, personal property, and individuals in a ce rtain area are commonly used as the introduction to a conversation. This is different from Chinese. Thus, different nations have different cultural environments, different living habits and different languages behavior expressions. And as a language learner, if not ideologically “physically entering their social linguistic environment” will be difficult to achieve the goal of language learning，not to say that language teaching objectives will be accomplished.
4.2 Some strategies for improving cross-cultural communication competence in the ELF oral learning in Chinese middle school
After the survey research and data analysis, now we have a clear idea of the common reasons that triggered the weakness of the cross-cultural communication in middle school ELF oral teaching. However, we do not have a clarity solution about this situations. Therefore, some strategies were listed here to help learners with their language learning.
4.2.1 Some strategies to learners
4.2.1.1Raising culture awareness
Culture awareness is the term we have used to describe sensitivity to the impact of culturally---induced behavior on language use and communication. It including two qualities: one is awareness of one’s own culture, the other is awareness of the culture[7]15.
Unfortunately, in China, cross-cultural communication errors can be found from time to time. In the ELF oral learning, culture factor needs to be taken seriously. To cultivate students’ intercultural communication we need first to arouse their cultural awareness. Because of different cultural background, life experience, profession, sex, education, even age, character, people may have different modes of interaction. People learn to think, feel, behave and strive for what their culture considers proper. These means there might not be the same as what is intended by the speaker. If we are aware of this, we can avoid ethnocentricity, and can have better communication with people all over the world.
Speakers of a foreign language often have the experience of making careless mistakes which may cause get angry, may be embarrassing and may arouse hostility from native speaker. Often such mistakes occur even though the application of the linguistic rules of grammar, vocabulary or pronunciation is correct. These mistakes are culture errors but occur because of not knowing or choosing the appropriate style, and manner to use for effective communication.
4.2.1.2 The development of sensitiveness to culture differences
There are four stages in the development of the sensitiveness to culture differences. The first, one can make out the obvious, superficial culture characteristics. In other word, he will find them interesting and exotic. The second, one can judge the delicate meaningful cultural characteristics that are quite different from his own. Usually he will feel them incredible or hard to accept .The third, one can accept the cultural characteristics after rational analysis. The fourth, one can be in the other peoples’ shoes and appreciate the cultural characteristics. In other words, the first three stage can be understood, and the fourth empathy.
4.2.1.3 The development of empathy
In order to communication effectively, you need a deep degree of empathy, that is to be able to understand the other person’s affective and cognitive states. Empathy differs from sympathy in that it does not include pity or approval. And focuses on the feelings of others, not our own[12]114. Empathy involves relativism and flexibility, which knowledge alone cannot consist. Teachers can create good classroom environment where students tolerate and appreciate different norms by bringing up students’ empathy. In China, we always emphasize collectivism instead of individualism. But in English class, we advocate differences, to encourage students to understand each other.
To facilitate empathy, we can take these measures:
(1) Subjects like history, anthropology, and sociology should be introduced into
the curriculum. Through these subjects, the students can not only acquaint themselves with the examples of foreign culture, but also master some concepts and principles concerning with culture.
(2) The students should be encouraged to read broadly in Chinese middle
school, both fiction non-fiction, literal or philosophical. Including proverbs, broad reading can be a student better understand and communicate with other cultures. Only through broad reading can he know the taboos, values, beliefs and religion of another culture, only through broad reading can be truly come to realize why privacy is so important and that individualism is so cherished.
(3) The students should he sent abroad for further study if possible. Thus they
can live with the natives for some time, no chance is better than the close contact. They can enjoy the new culture. By enhancing ICC, the intercultural communication of the learners can be carried out tactfully, acco rding to different context.
4.2.2 Some strategies to teachers
Language teachers are supposed to exert instructional strategies to help language learners promote their cross-cultural communication competence, that is, provide language learners with some useful ideals for presenting culture from its own perspective, for example, understanding and being aware of what people in target culture think of their own culture.Chinese teachers should take advantage of foreign teachers. Foreign teachers are rich in knowledge, idiomatic English, strong teaching culture context, full of wit and humor, longing to understand much more about Chinese culture. This attitude can have a great influence on students, and increased their desire of learning English well and knowing about the culture of English-speaking countries. Teachers can make full use of such rare chances and consult foreign teachers that they are according to the calendar, then all of the teachers and students can try their best to create all kinds of conditions to speak them imitatively —Action speak louder than words. Just as what we mentioned above, we have been aware of the importance of learning some cultural knowledge about the target language. It seems impossible and unnecessary for us to have a systematic study of target culture, which covers almost everything, in one’s whole lifetime. The difficulty shows that culture is ubiquitous, multidimensional and complex. A good solution to this problem might be to learn selectively those cultural factors that have great influence on intercultural communication, and that are closely related to the language. So on culture teaching we should follow these principles :( 1) interrelated. that is culture teaching must be interrelated with the content of the text. (2) Appropriate, that is culture teaching must be subjected to language teaching. (3) Practical, that is culture teaching must try to be “useful” for students in their communication. (4) Scientific, that is culture knowledge must be taught correctly, completely and objectively. (5) Flexible, that is culture teaching must be flexible according to the change of the world.
We must obey these five principles if we want to cultivate students’ abilities of cross-cultural communication. What we should teach in ELF classes is simply a foreign way of life related to the target language and teachers should avoid bringing their own cultural prejudice into class. The world is changing, so are the traditions and customs. The constant changes require us to improve our skills of intercultural communication by doing two things: understanding the cultural differences, especially the differences in the deep structure of different cultures, and becoming flexible in intercultural communication. There is a great tendency that one culture adopts the elements from another that are compatible with its own values and beliefs or that can be changed without causing major disruption.
4.2.2.1 Make full use of developing the interest of the competence of intercultural communication in the ELF oral learning in Chinese middle school
Intercultural communication is a big issue, which is not easy for both teachers and students to understand and realize. For successful cultural teaching, we suggest doing the following:
(1) Teach culture differences. Teachers should directly address the similarities and peculiarities between the source culture and the target culture. This can be done through the comparison of the two cultures.
(2) Provide opportunities for students to use the language in situational conversations. While introducing the students play a real-life role and practice their everyday language use according to the varied situation.
(3) Induce students to read literal works, which are vivid and abundant material to understand the character, the psychological state, culture characteristics, convention, and social relationships. Reading newspaper is also the direct path.
(4) Be aware of your students development level, when selecting themes or concepts to present. At first, learning activities should be clear and specific in lower levels, gradually, becoming more complex than the level of the student increases. There are a variety of children’s fiction which presents concepts like similarities, differences and prejudice which can be used at lower levels. At upper levels fiction and biographies can be used to present the more complicated ideas. Try to connect the unfamiliar with the familiar, the known with the unknown.
(5) Use plenty of ways in both general learning tasks and in language learning tasks.
(6) Use varied methods to check the understanding level of the students.
(7) Be enthusiastic. As a teacher you need to be aware of the value of learning a second language in terms of its contribution to developing cultural aware and a range of other cognitive and vocational benefits. Your attitude will influence the attitudes of the child ren in the class and their parents.
Beside, Chinese teachers should take advantage of foreign teachers. Foreign teachers are rich in knowledge, idiomatic English, strong teaching culture context, full of wit and humor, longing to understand much more about Chinese culture. This attitude can have a great influence on students, and increased their desire of learning English well and knowing about the culture of English-speaking countries. Teachers can make full use of such rare chances and consult foreign teachers that they are according to the calendar, then all of the teachers and students can try their best to create all kinds of conditions to speak them imitatively —Action speak louder than words.
For example, we once tried to spend Christmas and Hallowmas with all foreign teachers together in our school .The students were very interested and active in the activities， and such experiences can have impressed them strongly and forever.
Teachers should encourage students to communicate with foreign teachers and some other foreigners in and out of school. Students and foreign teachers can have classes, play games and take part in many kinds of activities together. Communicating with foreigners can provide students with the real cultural context in which English is used actually and stimulate students to learn English well including knowing about foreign culture.
As the success of many activities depends on good organization and on the students knowing exactly what they are to do. A teacher is thus mainly an organizer, whose work is different from administrator of a school system. But the teacher, like any other organizer, works primarily with people, and his task and responsibility are to create situations in which people can do their best and achieve their best.
Since teachers are key roles during culture teaching, they must play a positive role in helping the students to develop intercultural communicative competence and increase the students’ chances to succeeding in both language learning. It is not an expendable skill tacked on to the teaching of speaking, listening, writing and reading. It is always in some background. Lack of intercultural competence will limit the students’ ability to make sense of the world around them, and lead to failure in using English for communication across-culture.
4.2.2.2 Make full use of pictures, films, TV, computers and other audio-visual aids to make the teaching lively and interesting. Explore to the full the opportunities for students with the target culture information.
(1) Plays in and out of class
It is proved that plays in and out of class are probably the most efficient ways of language teaching.
The role of plays and dramas manifests itself when learners perform by themselves. Mini-dramas acted by students expose them to a “process of self-confrontation” with the target cultural communicates. The learners can act out mini-dramas written by them, which show misinterpretation of something that happens in the target cultural context. The cause of the problem is usually clarified in the final scene. Cultural similarities and differences will be analyzed by way of follow-up discussion.
In the listening book of Senior English book3 unit24, the material involves “finding a job”, English teachers can extract one or two advertisements from the magazine for students. Teachers can ask the students to divide into two groups, one group act as recruiters, and the other group act as applicants. By looking at the advertisements, appointing to interview, using some simple props, students can exchange views on working conditions, wages and other issues. Thus, students can understand the practical knowledge of Foreign Service work; the actors also can improve their abilities of practical language.
A short play can be broken down into sections. As learners learn (not memorize) one section, they move on to the next. By combining the sections, they have learned the play. The use of this technique enables different groups of learners to work on several short plays at the same time and leads to the creation of several shirt plays simultaneously.
Drama is a useful tool in cultural learning. A full semester’s work can be built around a drama project, or it can fill five or ten minutes at the beginning or end of a lesson. It encourages the learners to view the linguistic and cultural knowledge as a tool for communication rather than as an academic subject. It can bring life and vitality to the classroom.
(2) Classroom presentation
At the beginning of each lesson, teachers can hold a “cultural corner” sessions, with 5-10 minutes. Teachers or students can introduce one aspect of Western culture, such as famous events of foreign country in history, a prominent figure in the world, or some literary works. To accumulate the cultural knowledge for a long time, students’ cultural knowledge will naturally become broad and rich.
(3) Photo display
Use maps, photographs, and illustrations of the text to introduce relative cultural elements vividly. For instance, when we teach the States of Liberty which appears in the lesson 10 of junior English book3, at first we can display a wall chart of the Statue of Liberty in the United States in front of the classroom, then ask the students to identify it and then observe the Statue of Liberty carefully in the facial expressions, posture language, the hold-high arm and torch. And then teachers can introduce the following cultural background briefly: Batuoerdi, a French sculptor, builds U.S. Statue of Liberty. He takes his mother's face and his wife's body as models to manufacture it. The Goddess of Liberty not only has swallowed vicissitudes face, but also perseverance. The torch in her hand is a symbol of freedom shining all over the world. Then teachers can guide the students to make analysis of the understanding of American national spirit through the Statue of Liberty. Teachers also can allow the students to list their deepest impression in other countries or ethnic representation construction.
(4) Song appreciation
The important function of the songs is to express one’s wishes. Many lyrics and melody of songs are also full of rich cultural content. Students generally are interested in songs. If time is enough in the class, teachers can choose one or two representative English songs for students to appreciate or learn to sing. It is an effective method in the teaching of English cultural knowledge to analyze the content of the lyrics and music rhythm feelings. And then the students can accept the cultural baptism. For example, a song has a lyric like “Love is blue.”(Blue love). Then what representation is “blue” in English? It often expressed "frustration and anxiety". Teachers cited examples to analyze, and then asked students to appreciate this song, try to see if there are any new experiences.
(5) Foreign festivals on the campus
This activity is of great interest to young students. The celebration could take place in a class, a grade or the whole school with the help of the branch of the Youth League. All kinds of activities can be held in festivals, such as performance of foreign songs, dancing and dramas, holding costume parties, watching foreign films, attending lectures given by foreign experts and enjoying foreign food. By celebrating foreign festivals, learners will immerse in the target cultural context. Teachers are to give introduction on the origin and the conventional activities of the festival. A comparison of the similarities and differences between the foreign festivals and Chinese festivals can develop the learners’ cultural awareness.
(6) Using authentic materials
Obviously, the best way to learn foreign cultural background knowledge is to go to that country to stay there for a period of time. But we know that it is almost impossible to have such an opportunity, especially for our students. Therefore, it is practically necessary for the teachers to use authentic materials to teach culture.
Mass media, such as, film, novels and especially newspapers and magazines, is also considered as an insightful means for teaching culture, for they reflect people’s way of life in terms of variety contemporaneity and authenticity. Students in an ELF setting will spontaneously ask questions about puzzling aspects of society and life as reflected in the film or magazine. This material is by no means easy to interpret because there is so much central inference and it requires deep familiarity with and comprehensive exegeses of the culture in question. Therefore “all such material should be selected with an eye to the subculture diversity of the target community”.
5. Conclusion
Today, international cultural exchange is going on directly and indirectly, with its new scope, content, form and method unheard of before. To confine oneself to one’s own culture is to go against the times. Now, in our country, the open policy towards the rest of the world has become a fundamental policy. This policy has brought about much broader prospects for international cultural exchange. Therefore, overcoming cultural barriers has become more and more important. Only by surmounting the barriers can we get a high degree of cultural exchange, make use of good things from other cultures and build up our cultural and material wealth. This exchange will contribute to understanding and friendship among nations as well as development in science and culture.
In the practical teaching, the culture teaching should be presented as many detailed as possible in the teaching syllabus. The teaching materials should not be located only in the source culture and should be a constructive attempt to be explicit about intercultural behavior and communication, especially, in view of the limited language available at this level. Besides, in the classroom ELF oral teaching, teachers are expected to use a variety of teaching methods that are suitable to students’ level. In intercultural communication settings, Chinese learners in culture instruction should keep an open mind: we should try to avoid the prejudiced culture stereotypes over the other cultures and our own. Especially, we should put higher focus on the learning of our own Chinese culture. Another key point is becoming awareness of our own culture bottom lines. We must learn what our own culture line is ― the values where we are can negotiate, but we cannot compromise. We can allow others to be different, and respect their differences as they respect ours.
Though the culture teaching is a very complicated and difficult part to deal with, the educators and teachers involved in language education should make great efforts to carry out this part thoroughly. This determines much whether the effective cross-cultural communication can be preceded smoothly between China and the world.
Acknowledgements
My initial thanks go to my supervisor Meng Dong, who patiently supervised my dissertation and was at times very willing to offer me illuminating advice or suggestions. Without her help, I could not have finished this dissertation.
I am also indebted to other teachers and my classmates who have not only offered me their warm encouragements but also shared with me their ideas and books. They are Han Xiaoya, Shen Yin and many others.
And I also appreciate Li Neng, who offer me great help during the time I was in the practice in Ning Bo Chai Qiao middle school. Without her help, I could not finish my survey in this paper.
The remaining weakness and possible errors of the dissertation are entirely my own.
References
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AppendixⅠ
*Questionnaire:
Strongly Agree Agree Disagree Strongly Disagree
1) The cultivation of English skills(reading, writing, speaking and listening) is the foundation of the language learning
2) Reading English novels everyday is necessary
3) It is important to acquire a good knowledge of native language in foreign language learning
4) The accumulation of language and cross-cultural competence are of equal importance
5) It is necessary to read materials regularly about politics, economy, culture, and so on
6) You have the interest and passion in the ELF oral learning
7) You would prefer to get an English-related job after graduation
8) The present classroom teaching can cultivate your learning ability and improve your cross-cultural skills
9) You hope to have English class in various forms such as discussion, presentation, debate, performance and so on.
诚 信 承 诺
我谨在此承诺：本人所写的毕业论文《论中学英语口语教学中跨文化交际能力的培养》均系本人独立完成，没有抄袭行为，凡涉及其他作者的观点和材料，均作了注释，若有不实，后果由本人承担。
承诺人（签名）：
论文摘要：大中专英语教学改革，提高英语口语教学水平，应采取以下几种有效方法:注重课堂口语教学;开设第二课堂搞好份语教学;训练大中专学生提高口语技巧。
长期以来，我国大中专学生英语交际能力差，尤其是口语能力更差的问题比较突出，哑吧英语现象带有普遍性，提高口语教学水平，解决哑吧英语变为流利英语问题已经在我们这些从事大中专公共英语课教师面前重要而紧迫的任务，那么我们应该如何提高大中专学生英语口语教学质量呢，下面就此问题谈几点看法。
口语教改的重要作用教学大纲要求与哑吧英语现实的矛盾。教学大纲要求大中专学生能就教学内容和一般听力教材进行问答和讨论，能就一般的社会生活话题进行简单的交谈，讨论和发言，表达思想清楚，语音，语调基本正确。然而目前大中专学生很难达到这一要求，口语水平极低，学7年左右英语，用英语表达很差，呈现哑吧英语的局面，能看，能读，不能说。一个班级仅有一至二人能用英语简单表达，绝大多数不能表达。导致这种局面一是目前英语口语课程开设的课时少，有的学校基本不开，但更主要原因是过时陈旧的英语教学方法，重阅读，语法，轻实际表达，至于口语训练几乎没有，这种教学方法必须改革，采取新的教学方法，增加口语课是迅速提高英语教学水平达到大纲要求的有效途径。
社会对英语口语人才大量需要与英语口语教学水平低，不能满足市场需求的矛盾。社会大量需要英语口语人材。求职要求口语人才。三资企业，国内企业，政府和社会公共事业单位随深化改革和扩大开放对英语口语人才需求呈上升趋势。大中专毕业生毕业双向选择，在求职中英语口语水平决定求职人员工作位置高低，收人水平的高低，决定毕业生的前途命运。工作中需要口语，在外商谈判，参加国际学术活动需要口语。国际经贸文化交往越来越需要口语人才，尤其中国即将加人WTO，大量需要外向型英语口语人才。继续求学的需要。大中专毕业生继续求学拿学士，硕士，博士学位必须具备英语口头表达能力，尤其是出国留学，进修更需要英语口头表达能力。文化生活的需要。英语口语水平的提高今后对大中专学生参加英语沙龙，欣赏英美电影，小说，二网，欣赏体育比赛提高生活质量是重要的条件。然而目前由于过时的教学方法，英语口语教学极端落后，培训英语口语人才质量不高，数量少，不能满足社会大量需要。
关键词：英语；口语教学；意义
语是利用语言表达思想，培养学生进行口头交际的能。为了达到这一目标，采取什么样的教学方法和手段就显得非常重要。而传统的语言教学以“教”为主，教师讲解占去了课堂的主要时间，学生在教学过程中消极被动地接受语言知识。实际上，外语学习的首要任务是“学”而不是“教”。在英语口语教学中，教师应兼顾这两方面，善于发掘，勇于创新，采取形式多样的教学手段，激发学生英语学习的兴趣。我们不能把自己看作是不断向学生传递信息的源泉，而应是组织学生大量参与使用语言的学习活动的组织者和参与者，从而为学生学习使用语言创造机会，提供指导，使学生通过自己的语言实践来掌握这些知识和能力，并为取得富有成效的结果提供监督，帮助学生负责自己的学习，并在学习的过程中逐渐掌握最适合自己情况的学习方法。
作为当下国际通行的一种校际英语辩论模式——议会制英语辩论(Parliamentary English Debate)——是一项充满思辨乐趣的跨文化说服活动。作为一种文化现象，议会制英语辩论不等于英美等国的议会辩论，它只是借用了英美议会辩论的发言形式．为全世界的英语学习者提供了一个共同交流思想的平台。
最早的议会制英语辩论出现在19世纪英国牛津大学、剑桥大学的学生辩论协会中，其主要模仿借鉴了英国下议院的辩论模式。随着英语交流的国际化．议会制英语辩论作为一种文化现象得以迅速推广。今天．议会制英语辩论已发展成为世界范围内大学校际英语辩论赛的主要形式。其赛制与规则也因地域文化的差异而发生些许变化。议会制英语辩论在发展初期主要在英美等国大学的校际比赛中进行．它在亚洲国家的起步较晚，具有历史意义的第一届全亚大专英语辩论赛1994年才在新加坡南洋理工大学成功举行。到2004年5月．随着第25届世界大专英语辩论赛在马来西亚的成功举行，议会制英语辩论才真正成为一项在亚、非、美、澳、欧广为普及的国际赛事。
关于英语口语教学，国内有不少教学论文都不同程度地谈及英语论辩教学。然而，其中不少关于英语论辩的论文却多以中文辩论为模本进行英语翻版或以个人臆想进行主观创造，缺乏一定的规范性与国际视野。
我们的英语口语教学应该要转换一下思路了．传统视野中的英语口语教学一直将英语语音、语调的标准奉为口语优秀的首要前提。这一要求一方面使那些有地方口音的英语爱好者对口语学习望而却步；另一方面也使一些人过于刻意地模仿洋腔洋调，却忽视了说话的内容，往往言之无物。缺乏敏锐深刻的思辨。新时代与新形势要求我们的口语教学能真正定位于有跨文化说服能力的人才培养上，而这种人才培养显然离不开英语论辩教学。因此，在当前国内英语论辩教学尚不规范的情况下，将议会制英语辩论引入英语口语课堂无疑是非常必要的。
议会制英语辩论的辩题(Motion)一般以一项议案的形式出现，因此在每个辩题中都会有“This house”的固定开头。
这里的“This house”不一定就指某国家的政府或议会。议会制英语辩论的辩题一般分为封闭式、半封闭式和开放式三种。其中，半封闭式与开放式辩题对培养辩手的创新思维能力颇有益处。 转贴于
议会制英语辩论主张即兴演讲与即兴论争的完美结合。对议会制英语辩论赛而言．主办方一般只提前15—20分钟公布赛题．而且在每轮循环赛中使用不同的辩题。此外，议会制英语辩论一般只赋予正方充分的定义权与议题转化权，反方一般只享有反驳权。这样一来．正、反双方就无法拿各自的定义做挡箭牌，漫无边际地做各自已经准备好的演说秀；辩论中的正、反双方也就必然要就议题发生直接的正面冲突了。
议会制英语辩论倡导既竞争又合作的比赛精神。所谓相互竞争指的是双方辩手间唇枪舌剑的局面．所谓相互合作指的是议会制英语辩论主张双方在辩题定义为具体议题方面应保持合作，尽量在同一个议题下展开辩论。而不是像传统辩论那样，在对辩题的定义上各执一词，将辩论变为两段互不相干的演讲。换言之，议会制英语辩论的正方会尽量给反方一个合理可辩的议题，而不会在一些字词上做文字游戏，使反方觉得正方定义的议题无言以对。在议会制英语辩论中，合格的辩手都会将辩论视为一种非常有趣的思维体操，而不是那种要置人于死地的残酷对决。议会制英语辩论的这种不成文的合作精神是一种高尚的人文境界，对辩手的身心发展具有十分积极的作用。在这种合作精神关照下的双方，不再是充满敌意的对手，而是真正意义上的“辩友”。
辩论赛结束后，教师积极开发学生的思维，并和学生共同总结出辩论活动在英语口语教学中的如下创新：
1. 能将课堂预设和生成有机结合；
2. 课堂辩论赛激发出创造的火花，使课堂变得更生动；
3. 能将教师主导与学生自主有机结合；
4. 能将竞争和合作有机结合；
5. 构建学生学习团队，比合作学习更走远了一步；
6. 能改变肤浅的课堂讨论，提高学生的逻辑思辨能力、表达能力以及民主意识。
综上所述，笔者以为将英语辩论引入英语口语课堂是一项非常有意义的教改举措。英语辩论是一种将本土思维与外国语言结合的完美实践。它能帮助我们的学生在跨文化的论辩场合不仅说得出口，而且说得有内容、有逻辑，有道理。也只有这样，我们才有望真正解决“哑巴英语”与“哑巴思维”的同题。英语辩论能够有效地促进学生英语口语发展，教师可将英语辩论适度引入课堂，作为丰富课堂组织活动的手段之一，促进教师与学生、学生与学生的多边互动，弥补课堂交际活动的缺陷。充分发挥课堂辩论的优势，增强了口语课的效果，使口语教学有新的突破，将人文素质教育逐步渗透至英语教学的课堂。
参考文献
[1]周耀东 西方修辞与中国的外语教育--刘亚猛教授访谈 [期刊论文] -外国语言文学2004(01).
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